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PIANOFORTE  MUSIC: 


ITS  HISTORY,   WITH  BIOGRAPHICAL  SKETCHES  AND 
CRITICAL  ESTIMATES  OF  ITS  GREATEST 
MASTERS. 


BY  ^ 

JOHN  COMFORT  FILLMORE. 


CHICAGO: 
TOWNSEND  MAC  COUN. 

1883. 


Copyright  1883, 
TOWNSEND  MAC  COUN, 
Chicago. 


R.  Donnelley  &  Sons,  Printers, 


PREFACE. 


In  entering  a  field  hitherto  unoccupied  by  any  English- 
speaking  writer,  the  author  of  this  book  has  had  in 
view  the  following  objects: 

To  discriminate  clearly  the  natural  epochs  into  which 
the  history  of  pianoforte  music  divides;  to  give  a  lucid 
statement  and  exposition  of  the  principles  of  composi- 
tion which  have  governed  and  determined  the  creative 
activity  of  those  epochs;  to  trace  the  development  of 
these  principles  as  manifested  in  the  phenomena  of 
composition,  and  to  point  out  the  relation  of  the  work 
of  each  epoch  to  what  preceded  and  what  followed  it; 
to  call  attention  to  the  great  epoch-making  composers 
whose  work  furnishes  the  chief  examples  of  those  char- 
acteristic principles ;  to  give  a  clear  and  discriminating 
account  of  their  work,  a  trustworthy  estimate  of  their 
relative  rank  and  place  in  history,  and  to  furnish  bio- 
graphical sketches  of  them  sufficiently  full  to  give  gen- 
eral readers  a  not  inadequate  notion  of  the  men  and 
their  lives ;  to  notice  the  work  and  lives  of  minor  com- 
posers and  performers  with  as  much  fullness  as  the 

iii 


iv 


PREFACE. 


limits  of  the  book  would  permit ;  to  trace  the  develop- 
ment of  the  technic  of  the  pianoforte  ;  to  give  a  suf- 
ficient account  of  the  mstruments  which  preceded  the 
pianoforte,  and  of  their  relation  to  that  instrument. 

How  far  he  has  succeeded  in  his  aims  he  leaves  to 
the  judgment  of  his  readers.  But  whatever  shortcom- 
ings may  be  discovered  in  his  work,  the  attempt  is  one 
which  he  believes  requires  no  apology.  The  number 
of  those  who  are  strongly  interested  in  the  best  piano- 
forte music  is  already  large  and  is  rapidly  increasing. 
To  all  such,  and  especially  to  those  who,  like  the  author, 
are  engaged  in  teaching  the  pianoforte,  a  connected 
account  of  the  course  of  development  of  that  music 
and  of  the  composers  who  were  instrumental  in  that 
development,  can  not  fail  to  be  welcome. 

Of  the  subjects  here  expounded,  "The  Content  of 
Music"  and  "The  Classic  and  Romantic"  certainly 
deserve  much  more  attention  than  they  have  hitherto 
received,  and  it  is  hoped  that  the  present  exposition 
will  be  found  valuable.  The  biographical  sketch  of 
Chopin  will  be  found  more  complete  and  accurate  than 
any  heretofore  published  in  Enghsh,  and  the  other 
biographies  and  critical  estimates  are  at  least  fresh,  and 
express  the  author's  own  judgments. 

The  work  has  been  a  labor  of  love,  and  the  author 


PREFACE. 


V 


can  find  no  better  wish  for  those  who  may  do  him  the 
honor  to  be  his  readers,  than  that  they  may  find  the 
perusal  of  his  work  as  interesting  and  profitable  as  the 
composition  of  it,  and  the  necessary  preparation  for 
that  composition,  have  been  to  himself.  With  this 
wish,  and  the  sincere  hope  that  his  work  may  not  only 
give  useful  information,  but  prove  a  helpful  stimulus 
•to  the  highest  musical  and  intellectual  life,  he  ofiers  it 
to  the  public. 

J.  C.  F. 

Milwaukee,  Wis.,  Marcli  27  1883. 

Note. — The  author  takes  this  opportunity  to  acknowledge  his 
obligations  to  numerous  friends,  and  especially  to  Professors  J.  M. 
Oeery,  of  Ripon  College,  W.  S.  B.  Mathews,  of  Chicago,  and  Libra- 
rian Linderfelt,  of  the  Milwaukee  Public  Library,  for  valuable 
suggestions,  criticism  and  assistance. 


CONSPECTUS. 


INTRODUCTION. 

THE  PIANOFORTE  AND  ITS  IMMEDIATE  PRECURSORS,  THE  HARPSICHORD 
AND  THE  CLAVICHORD. 

PART  I. 

THE  FIRST  CLASSICAL  PERIOD. 
Chapter  I. — polyphonic  music. 

Chapter  II. — the  three  greatest  composers  of  polyphonic  music 

FOR  THE  harpsichord  :  J.  S.  BACH,  G.  F.  HAENDEL,  D.  SCARLATTI. 

PART  II. 

THE  SECOND  CLASSICAL  PERIOD. 
A.    The  Epoch  of  the  Development  of  the  Sonata-Form. 

Chapter  III. — monophonic  music — form — the  sonata-form. 

Chapter  IV. — the  three  composers  who  developed  the  sonata- 
form  to  its  logical  limits  :   c.  p.  e.  bach,  Joseph  haydn, 

W.  a.  MOZART. 

B.  The  Epoch  of  the  Predominance  of  Content  in  the  Sonata. 
Chapter  V. — the  content  of  music. 

Chapter  VI. — l.  van  beethoven  :    the  composer  who  embodied  in 

THE  sonata  the  NOBLEST  POSSIBLE  CONTENT  AND  RAISED  IT  TO  THE 

highest  significance  as  a  work  of  art. 

vii 


viii 


CONSPECTUS. 


C.    The  Transition  from  the  Classic  to  the  Romantic  Period. 

Chapter  VII. — the  classic  and  the  romantic  in  music. 

Chapter  VIII. — beethoven's  two  greatest  contemporaries  in  the 

domain  of  pianoforte  music  :  C.  M.  von  WEBER  AND  FRANZ 
SCHUBERT. 

PART  III. 

THE  ROMANTIC  PERIOD. 
Chapter  IX. — mendelssohn,  chopin  and  schumann. 

PART  IV 

THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  PIANOFORTE  TECHNIC. 

Chapter  X. — the  technic  of  the  first  classical  period. 
Chapter  XI. — the  technic  of  the  second  classical  period. 
Chapter  XII. — the  technic  of  the  transition  period. 
Chapter  XIII. — the  technic  of  the  romantic  period. 

PART  V. 

Minor  Composers  and  Virtuosi  of  the  Different  Epochs. 

Chapter  XIV. — A.    the  epoch  of  polyphonic  music. 

B.  the  epoch  of  the  sonata. 

C.  the  contemporaries  of  the  romanticists  and  their  suc- 

cessors, TO  THE  present. 


History  of  Piais-ofoete  Music, 


INTRODUCTION. 

THE  PIANOFORTE  AND  ITS  PRECURSORS,  THE  CLAVI- 
CHORD AND  THE  HARPSICHORD. 


The  pianoforte*  is  an  instrument  too  well  known  to 
require  description  here.  Its  characteristic  pecu- 
liarity, as  distinguished  from  the  instruments  from 
which  it  was  derived,  the  harpsichord  and  the  clavi- 
chord, is  that  the  tone  produced  from  its  strings  can 
be  made  soft  or  loud  at  the  pleasure  of  the  per- 
former. The  means  by  which  these  effects  are  pro- 
duced consist  in  hammers  connected  with  the  keys, 
and  so  arranged  that  the  performer  can,  by  graduating 
his  touch,  make  them  strike  the  strings  with  varying 
degrees  of  force,  with  the  effect  of  eliciting  every 
degree  of  sonority  of  which  the  strings  are  capable. 

The  pianoforte  was  invented  in  Italy,  at  the  be- 
ginning of  the  eighteenth  century.  The  first  piano- 
fortes of  which  we  have  any  authentic  information 
were  made  in  Florence,  by  Bartholomew  Cristofori, 


Introduc- 
tion. 


The  Piano- 
forte. 


Invented  in 
Italy  about 
1700. 


*The  name  "  pianoforte  "  is  a  compound  of  two  Italian  words, 
soft,  3ind/ortey  loud.    It  means,  therefore,  etymologically,  a  "  soft-loud." 


HISTORY  OF  PIANOFORTE  MUSIC. 


in  1709.  These  instruments  were  the  result  of 
efforts  to  improve  the  harpsichord,  so  as  to  make  it 
capable  of  producing  tones  of  various  degrees  of 
power.  This  need  was  everywhere  felt,  and  other 
makers  of  harpsichords,  in  other  countries,  were  also 
engaged  in  attempting  to  solve  this  problem.  The 
harpsichord  and  clavichord  had  this  in  common  with 
the  pianoforte;  they  had  metallic  strings,  stretched 
horizontally  in  a  frame  over  a  sounding  board,  and 
were  played  by  means  Of  keys.  But  the  strings  of 
the  harpsichord  were  snapped^  by  means  of  crow's 
quills,  and  those  of  the  clavichord  were  set  in  vi- 
bration by  means  of  a  push  from  a  small  brass  wedge 
or  "tangent,"  set  in  the  end  of  the  keys.  This  lat- 
ter instrument  already  had  some  capability  of  gra- 
dations of  power,  and  for  this  reason  it  was  a  favor- 
ite with  the  best  musicians.  It  required  great  deli- 
cacy of  touch,  and  in  the  hands  of  a  master  was, 
within  certain  limits,  a  very  expressive  instrument. 
But  strings  vibrated  in  this  manner  were  necessarily 
thin  and  light,  and  produced  only  soft  and  delicate 
tones. 

The  harpsichord  also  had  light  strings,  and  its 
tones  were  weak.  It  was  not  only  impossible  to 
produce  much  variation  in  the  power  of  the  tone, 
but  no  powerful  tone  could  be  obtained  from  any 
string,  whether  light  or  heavy,  by  any  such  methods 
of  producing  vibration.  Heavy  strings,  especially, 
must  be  struck^  not  snapped  nor  pushed,  in  order  to 
produce  their  maximum  of  tone;  and  it  was  in  the 
direction  of  heavy  strings  and  a  larger  sounding 


IN  TROD  UCTION. 


3 


board  that  progress  was  to  be  made  toward  an  in- 
crease of  sonority,  after  the  means  had  been  found 
of  producing  the  greatest  amount  of  tone  of  which 
the  Hghter  strings  were  capable,  as  well  as  of  vary- 
ing their  power. 

In  the  early  part  of  the  last  century,  then,  the 
clavichord  and  harpsichord  had  reached  the  limit  of 
their  development,  and  musicians  and  instrument 
makers  were  anxiously  striving  to  secure  results  of 
which  these  instruments  were  intrinsically  incapable. 
But,  though  Cristofori,  and  others  of  his  contempor- 
aries and  immediate  succcessors,  hit  on  the  right 
principle,  the  first  crude  applications  of  it  were  not 
immediately  successful.  The  new  instruments  did 
not  find  favor  with  players  for  a  long  time.  This 
was  partly  because  of  the  still  remaining  defects  of 
their  construction,  for  much  time  was  required  to 
perfect  the  complicated  action  of  the  pianoforte  so 
as  to  secure  promptness,  delicacy  and  power  of 
touch,  to  damp  the  strings  properly,  to  remove  the 
hammer  from  the  string  as  soon  as  it  had  struck, 
and  have  it  in  readiness  for  an  instant  repetition  of 
the  stroke.  It  was  also  partly  due,  perhaps,  to  the 
fact  that  players  accustomed  to  the  older  instru- 
ments could  not  readily  find  themselves  at  home  with 
the  new  mechanism,  and  preferred  that  with  which 
they  were  familiar.  At  any  rate,  so  great  a  musi- 
cian and  player  as  J.  S.  Bach,  condemned  the  Sil- 
bermann  pianofortes  shown  him  in  1726,  as  being 
heavy  in  touch,  and  weak  in  the  treble;  his  son,  C. 
P.  E.  Bach,  is  said  always  to  have  preferred  the 


4 


HISTORY  OF  PIANOFORTE  MUSIC. 


clavichord,  and  even  Mozart,  to  the  end  of  his  life, 
was  a  harpsichord  player,  rather  than  a  pianist. 

But  toward  the  end  of  the  century,  great  improve- 
ments were  made  in  the  construction  of  the  piano- 
forte; the  number  of  compositions  specially  calcu- 
lated for  the  capabilities  of  the  instrument  had 
greatly  increased;  the  younger  musicians  had  be- 
came familiar  with  its  manipulation;  and  by  the  be- 
ginning of  the  present  century,  the  clavichord  and 
harpsichord  were  driven  forever  out  of  use. 

In  closing  this  brief  sketch,  it  remains  to  give  a 
passing  glance  at  two  other  instruments,  the  spmet 
and  virginals.  Concerning  these  it  is  only  necess- 
ary to  say  that  they  were  merely  varieties  of  the 
harpsichord,  differing  from  it  only  in  shape  and  size, 
but  not  in  principle,  much  as  square  and  upright 
pianofortes  differ  from  a  concert  grand,  which  is 
shaped  like  the  old  harpsichords. 

A  full  account  of  all  these  instruments  is  to  be 
found  in  Grove's  Dictionary  of  Music  and  Musi- 
cians. 


part  first. 
The  First  Classical  Period. 
1 700-1 750. 


CHAPTER  I. 


POLYPHONIC  MUSIC. 


Melody  is  a  series  or  succession  of  tones  rhythmi- 
cally regulated. 

Harmony  is  a  combination  of  tones  heard  simul- 
taneously. 

Counterpoint  is  the  art  of  writing  two  or  more 
melodies  to  proceed  simultaneously.  Music  thus 
written  is  called  ^''contrapuntal^''  or  polyphonic ^ 
The  latter  term  means  "many-voiced."  In  poly- 
phonic music,  harmony  is  an  incidental  result  of  the 
simultaneous  progression  of  the  voices. 

''''Moiiophonic "  or  ^^homophojiic  "*  music  has  only 
one  principal  melody.  This  is  usually  accompanied 
by  chords,  more  or  less  full,  either  in  their  simple 
form,  or  broken  up  into  arpeggios.  Sometimes, 
however,  other  subordinate  melodies  form  the  ac- 
companiment, to  a  greater  or  less  extent.  This  is 
especially  true  of  the  bass,  which  often  is  a  well- 
defined  melody,  but  is  never,  in  this  style  of  music, 
quite  equal  in  importance  and  interest  to  the  princi- 
pal melody.  Sometimes,  indeed,  the  principal  mel- 
ody is  given  to  the  bass,  the  harmonic  accompani- 
ment being  above  it. 

*The  present  writer  has  chosen  the  terhi  "monophonic"  (''one-voiced"), 
as  representing  more  accurately  the  fact  that  music  in  this  style  has 
only  one  prominent  melody  at  any  given  point.  Many  German  writers 
prefer  the  terra  "homophonic." 

7 


8 


HISTORY  OF  PIANOFORTE  MUSIC. 


Chap.  I. 


Beginnings 
of  Modern 
Music, 


Early 
Counter- 
Point. 


In  the  monophonic  style  of  composition,  harmony 
is  no  longer  an  accident,  so  to  speak,  but  the  chords, 
in  their  successions  and  relations,  exist  independent 
of  any  interweaving  of  separate  melodic  parts. 

The  beginnings  of  our  modern  music,  in  the  early 
Christian  church,  were  monophonic  in  the  strictest 
sense.  The  congregations  sang  their  hymns  in  uni- 
son, without  any  accompaniment.  Afterwards, 
singers  and  composers  began  to  accompany  this 
melody  with  one  or  more  independent  melodies,  in 
tones  of  the  same  length  as  those  of  the  original 
melody,  or  cantus  fir??ius,  as  it  was  called.  This 
was  the  beginning  of  counterpoint,  ^pimctum  contra 
punctum,''  point  against  point.  At  that  time  there 
were  no  notes;  points  were  used  instead.  We 
should  say  note  against  note.  Certain  monks  of 
the  middle  ages  cultivated  this  science;  sought  to 
determine  what  intervals  might  be  admissible;  and 
gradually  developed  their  art  to  a  high  pitch  of  per- 
fection. The  separate  melodies  gradually  became 
more  and  more  florid,  the  number  of  them  was  in- 
creased, until,  at  last,  compositions  were  written  in 
as  many  as  ninety  real  parts.  Of  course,  these  ex- 
tremely complicated  webs  of  tone  were  nearly  or 
quite  unintelligible  to  most  musicians,  and  wholly 
so  to  amateurs.  But  they  were  masterpieces  of  in- 
genuity, and  the  interest  in  counterpoint  which  pro- 
duced them,  had  developed  consummate  skill  in  the 
management  of  simultaneously  progressing  voice- 
parts. 

The  technic  of  composition   in  this  first  great 


POL  Y PHONIC  MUSIC. 


9 


style  (the  polyphonic)  was  developed  through  the 
enthusiastic  labors  of  composers,  monks,  theorists 
and  pedants,  among  whom  there  appeared,  now 
and  then,  a  man  of  genuine  creative  genius.  Among 
these  ought  especially  to  be  mentioned  Orlandus 
Lassus,  (1530  (?)-i594)  a  Netherlander,  whose  most 
important  work  was  done  in  Munich,  and  Giovanni 
PiERLiUGi  Di  Palestrina  (1524-1594),  a  Roman 
church  composer,  in  whom  the  contrapuntal  art  pre- 
vious to  Sebastian  Bach  found  its  culmination. 

At  first,  the  efforts  of  contrapuntists  were  directed 
solely  toward  the  discovery  of  intervals  pleasing  to 
the  ear,  and  combining  melodies  so  as  to  produce 
agreeable  effects  at  every  point.  Then  came  the 
effort  to  enhance  the  effect  of  consonances  by  the 
judicious  use  of  dissonances.  This  resulted  in  mak- 
ing the  parts  more  smooth  and  flowing  in  their 
movement.  But,  as  the  separate  melodies  began  to 
be  more  and  more  florid,  the  need  of  some  means 
of  securing  unity  was  felt.  A  complicated  web  of 
interwoven  melodies,  having  no  elements  in  com- 
mon, and  no  bond  of  union  except  consonance  in 
their  intervals  would  be  nearly  or  quite  unintelligi- 
ble. The  means  by  which  unity  was  secured  was 
Imitation. 

Of  Imitation  there  are  two  principal  kinds,  the 
Strict  and  the  Free. 

The  simplest  form  of  Strict  Imitation  is  the  Canon. 
In  this  form  of  composition,  after  one  melody  has 
proceeded  alone  for  one  or  more  measures,  another 
part  (or  "voice")  begins  the  same  melody,  and  con- 


lO 


HISTORY  OF  PIANOFORTE  MUSIC. 


tinues  it,  in  strict  imitation,  at  the  interval  of  an  oc- 
tave (or  perhaps  some  other  interval),  until  the  final 
cadence  of  the  first  melody  is  reached,  when  the 
second  melody  is  modified  to  suit  the  requirements 
of  the  close,  and  both  come  to  an  end  together.  Of 
course,  in  the  invention  of  the  first  melody  regard 
must  be  had  to  the  imitation  which  is  to  progress 
with  it.  This  requires  much  ingenuity  and  skill. 
There  are  also  canons  in  three,  four,  or  more  parts; 
and  many  curious  and  ingenious  kinds  of  canons, 
which  can  not  here  be  described. 

The  most  elaborate  of  the  forms  of  Strict  Imita- 
tion is  the  Fugue.  This  is  the  culmination  of  the 
strict  polyphonic  style,  both  in  respect  of  technical 
requirements,  of  beauty,  and  expressive  power.  A 
fugue  may  be  written  in  two,  three,  four,  five  or 
more  parts.  Some  one  of  the  parts  starts  with  a 
short,  well-defined  melody,  which  is  \.\\^  subject''' 
of  the  fugue.  Then  another  voice  replies  with  an 
imitation  of  this  subject,  in  the  key  of  the  dominant. 
This  imitation  is  called  the  answer.''  The  first  part 
accompanies  the  answer  by  a  new  melodic  phrase, 
so  contrived  as  to  contrast  with  the  original  phrase 
and  serve  as  a  foil  to  it.  This  is  called  the  ^^counter 
subject."  If  the  fugue  is  in  two  parts  only,  when  the 
answer  is  completed  by  the  second  part,  the  ^^exposi- 
tion' of  the  fugue  is  said  to  be  complete.  Then  fol- 
lows an  interlude  or  episode^  in  which  fragments  of 
the  subject  and  counter  subject  are  used  as  imita- 
tions. This  episode  leads  to  the  second  entry  of 
the  subject,  which  commonly  takes  place  in  reverse 


POLYPHONIC  MUSIC. 


II 


order  to  the  exposition;  /.  e.,  if  the  exposition  began 
with  the  soprano  and  the  bass  answered  it,  the  bass 
now  leads  with  the  subject  and  the  soprano  follows 
with  the  answer.  After  this  comes  another  episode, 
and  then  a  strefto"  where  the  answer  enters  before 
the  subject  has  finished.  The  whole  is  closed  with 
a    coda,"  more  or  less  elaborate. 

This  is  the  simplest  outline  of  the  fugue  form. 
When  the  fugue  is  written  for  three,  four  or  more 
voices,  there  are  often  more  than  three  entries  of 
the  subject  and  answer  in  all  the  parts.  After  the 
exposition,  or  first  complete  entry  of  all  the  voices, 
the  order  of  entrance  and  the  modulations  into  dif- 
ferent keys  are  left  to  the  imagination  and  skill  of 
the  composer.  So  are  the  length  and  richness  of 
the  interludes,  and  the  greater  or  less  elaboration  of 
the  coda.  The  stretto  is  sometimes  a  strict  canon. 
The  counter  subject  is  often  so  constructed  as  to  go 
in  double  counterpoint  with  the  subject;  that  is,  is  so 
contrived  that  the  lower  of  them  may  be  transposed 
an  octave  higher,  or  the  higher  an  octave  lower,  and 
the  relations  of  the  two  still  be  correct  and  satisfac- 
tory. There  are  fugues  with  two,  three,  four  and 
more  subjects. 

Free  Imitation  occurs  when  the  imitations  of  a 
given  subject  or  "  motive "  take  place  without  any 
exact  following  of  the  original  order  of  intervals, 
and  not  in  accordance  with  any  fixed  rule  as  to  their 
number,  or  the  order  of  their  entrance.  The  old 
compositions  in  this  style  were  Preludes,  Inventions, 
Fantasias,  Toccatas,  Sonatas,  and  various  forms  of 


12 


HISTORY  OF  PIANOFORTE  MUSIC. 


dance  music.  Most  of  the  compositions  passing  un- 
der these  names  were  polyphonic. 

The  sonata  form  will  be  considered  further  on. 
The  Suite  was  a  series  of  dance  tunes,  often  intro- 
duced by  a  prelude.  They  were  invariably  all  in 
the  same  key,  and  were  so  arranged  as  to  contrast 
with  one  another  in  tempo.  The  first  dance  was 
commonly  moderately  fast;  the  second  very  rapid, 
the  third  slow  and  stately,  the  fourth  and  perhaps 
the  fifth  less  slow,  but  still  majestic  and  dignified, 
and  the  last  a  lively,  rollicking  jig. 

The  following  examples  are  recommended  to 
students.  J.  S.  Bach,  "  Two-part  and  Three-part 
Inventions,  "  Das  Wohltemperirte  Clavier "  (The 
Well-Tempered  Clavichord),  a  collection  of  forty- 
eight  preludes  and  fugues  in  all  the  keys;  English 
and  French  Suites  and  Partitas.  Haendel,*  six- 
teen Suites,  Legons,  Pieces,  Fugues,  Fuguettes. 
D.  Scarlatti,  eighteen  pieces  (Buelow).  All  these 
can  be  obtained  in  the  cheap  but  excellent  edi- 
tion of  C.  F.  Peters  in  Leipzig.  There  is  also  a 
set  of  pieces  by  Scarlatti,  edited  by  Louis  Koehler, 
and  published  by  Julius  Schuberth  &  Co.,  Leipzig. 

The  polyphonic  music  was  first  written  for  voices, 
and  for  the  service  of  the  church.  Afterwards  secu- 
lar music,  (madrigals,  etc.)  came  into  vogue.  When 
the  organ  and  other  keyed  instruments  had  been 
invented,  they  were  at  first  used  for  accompani- 


*For  typographical  reasons  the  e  is  used  in  this  and  all  other  cases  in- 
stead of  the  umlaut. 


POL  Y PHONIC  MUSIC. 


13 


ments  to  vocal  music.  From  this  it  was  an  easy 
step  to  transfer  the  vocal  forms  to  separate  instru- 
mental performances,  and  this  naturally  led  to  inde- 
pendent composition  for  these  instruments.  The 
most  elaborate  and  masterly  fugues  are  those  of  J. 
S.  Bach,  for  the  organ  and  clavichord.  For  these 
instruments  the  polyphonic  music  was  written,  and 
with  the  year  of  Bach's  death,  1750,  this  first  classi- 
cal period  may  be  said  to  have  closed.  Its  signifi- 
cance to  us  lies  in  the  fact  that  all  its  treasures  are 
still  available  for  the  pianoforte,  which  has  sup- 
planted the  harpsichord  and  clavichord,  and  that  a 
knowledge  of  it  is  indispensable  to  every  pianist. 


Chap.  I, 


CHAPTER  II. 


Chap.  II. 
/.  6-.  Bach. 


Life  and 
education 
at  his 
brother  s. 


THE  THREE  GREATEST  COMPOSERS  OF  POLYPHONIC 
MUSIC   FOR  THE  HARPSICHORD: 

JoHANN  Sebastian  Bach,  1685-1750. 
George  Frederick  Haendel,  1685-1759. 
DoMENico  Scarlatti,  1683-1757. 

By  far  the  most  important  of  all  composers  for 
the  harpsichord  was  John  Sebastian  Bach.  He  was 
the  most  distinguished  representative  of  a  numerous 
family  of  musicians,  who  lived  in  Eisenach  and  its 
neighboring  towns  for  some  two  centuries.  They  were 
a  simple,  honest,  straightforward,  high-minded  race; 
they  lived  quiet  domestic  lives,  and  devoted  them- 
selves to  their  art,  with  a  simplicity  of  character,  and 
an  elevation  of  purpose,  which  always  secured  them 
the  respect  and  love  of  their  fellow-townsmen.  The 
subject  of  this  sketch  was  born  in  Eisenach,  March 
21,  1685.  He  received  his  first  lessons  from  his 
father,  beginning  with  the  violin.  But  losing  both 
his  parents  before  he  was  ten  years  old,  he  went  to 
live  with  his  older  brother,  Johann  Christoph,  organ- 
ist at  Ohrdruff.  With  him  he  began  lessons  on  the 
clavichord.  He  made  remarkable  progress,  and 
speedily  gave  evidence  of  the  gifts  which  were  by 
ind  by  to  raise  him  to  the  highest  pinnacle  of  fame. 

His  brother  seems  to  have  repressed  rather  than 
encouraged  the  impulses  of  the  child's  genius.  He 


/.  S.  BACH. 


15 


not  only  refused  him  the  use  of  his  own  collection  of 
music,  by  the  best  masters  of  the  time,  but  after  the 
boy  had  surreptitiously  obtained  the  book,  and  la- 
boriously copied  the  whole,  by  moonlight,  this  hard- 
hearted and  unappreciative  teacher  took  the  well- 
earned  and  dearly-prized  copy  away  from  him.  At 
the  age  of  fifteen,  he  was  sent  away  to  Lueneburg  to 
school,  and  entered  the  choir,  in  which  his  services 
paid  for  his  school  tuition,  including  vocal  and  instru- 
mental music.  He  made  rapid  progress  in  playing 
the  organ  and  harpsichord,  and  improved  every  op- 
portunity to  hear  the  best  performers  of  Lueneburg 
and  the  neighboring  town  of  Hamburg.  He  was 
also  greatly  influenced  and  inspired  by  the  per- 
formances of  the  duke's  orchestra  at  Celle,  a  band 
at  that  time  made  up  largely  of  Frenchmen,  and 
playing  mostly  French  music. 

He  remained  at  Lueneburg  three  years.  At  the 
end  of  that  time  he  entered  an  orchestra  at  Weimar, 
and  soon  after  became  organist  at  Arnstadt.  Here 
he  studied  and  practiced  with  the  utmost  diligence 
and  zeal,  striving  to  perfect  himself,  both  in  playing, 
and  in  theory  and  composition.  In  1705  he  spent 
three  months  at  Luebeck,  for  the  purpose  of  hearing 
the  celebrated  organist,  Buxtehude,  and  of  becom- 
ing acquainted  with  him. 

Bach's  reputation  as  an  organist  was  now  begin- 
ning to  spread.  He  received  several  offers  of  situa- 
tions, and  in  1707  he  accepted  an  organist's  post  at 
Muehlhausen  in  Thueringen,  but  left  it  in  1708,  when 
he  was  twenty-three  years  old,  to  become  court  or- 


HISTORY  OF  PIANOFORTE  MUSIC. 


ganist  in  Weimar.  Here  he  remained  nine  years, 
during  which  time  he  won  acknowledged  rank  as 
first  of  organists  and  organ  composers.  He  wrote 
here  most  of  his  greatest  works  for  the  organ.  He 
made  annual  concert-tours,  playing  both  the  organ 
and  clavichord,  and  won  an  extended  reputation  as 
a  master  of  the  highest  rank. 

In  1 7 17,  he  accepted  the  appointment  of  con- 
ductor at  Coethen,  and  now  for  five  years  devoted 
himself  mainly  to  composing,  and  directing  public 
performances  of  chamber  music.  But  in  1723,  he 
was  appointed  cantor  at  the  St.  Thomas  school  at 
Leipzig,  and  also  organist  and  director  of  music  in 
the  two  principal  churches.  Here  he  remained  until 
his  death,  July  28,  1750,  writing  music  for  his  choir 
for  almost  every  service;  chorals,  motets,  cantatas, 
and  great  works  for  the  festivals  of  the  church, 
among  them  one  High  Mass,  and  his  immortal  Pas- 
sion Music. 

For  the  rest,  he  lived  a  quiet,  retired  life,  devot- 
ing himself,  not  only  to  his  musical  labors,  but  to 
the  education  of  his  numerous  children,  of  whom  he 
had  twenty,  by  two  marriages.  The  most  notable 
incident  which  broke  the  monotony  of  his  daily  rou- 
tine, was  a  visit  to  Frederick  the  Great,  in  1747. 
Bach's  son  Emanuel  was  Frederick's  principal  court- 
musician.  The  king,  who  was  a  lover  of  music,  in- 
vited the  father  to  visit  him,  and  treated  him  with 
greatest  respect  and  consideration.  As  usual,  Bach's 
playing  and  his  wonderful  skill  in  improvising  on 
given  themes,  excited  the  strongest  admiration. 


/.  S.  BACH. 


7 


Soon  after  this  he  became  blind,  and  continued 
so  for  the  short  remainder  of  his  Hfe.  His  death 
occurred  from  a  fit  of  apoplexy,  July  28,  1750. 

Bach  was  one  of  the  world's  great  creative  minds; 
an  original  genius  of  the  highest  order;  a  most  con- 
summate master  of  the  art  of  musical  composition 
as  understood  in  his  day,  and  he  had  no  superior  in 
playing  the  harpsichord  and  clavichord.  All  the  re- 
sources and  capabilities  of  these  instruments  he 
thoroughly  understood.  He  was,  it  is  true,  very 
much  more  than  a  master  of  the  harpsichord;  he 
was  the  greatest  organist  of  his  time,  and  his  organ 
compositions  are  the  noblest  and  most  significant 
the  world  has  yet  known.  He  was  a  teacher  and 
choir-leader,  and  a  very  large  part  of  his  mental  ac- 
tivity was  spent  in  the  production  of  church  music, 
of  which  he  has  left  behind  an  immense  amount, — 
hundreds  of  cantatas,  motets,  chorals,  a  great  Mass 
in  B  minor,  five  separate  settings  of  the  Passion  of 
our  Lord  as  given  in  the  gospels,  of  which  that  stu- 
pendous work,  the  Passion  Music  according  to  St. 
Matthew,  will  forever  remain  one  of  the  great  monu- 
ments of  Protestant  religious  art.  But  though  he 
composed  so  much  for  chorus,  organ  and  orchestra, 
besides  chamber  music,  he  nevertheless  wrote  a  very 
large  number  of  compositions  for  the  harpsichord. 

Many  of  these  works  are  of  permanent  value  from 
their  nobility  and  beauty  of  style  and  their  intrinsic 
emotional  significance,  and  all  are  characterized  by 
high  intellectual  qualities,  and  consummate  musi- 
cianship.   Moreover,  although  the  instruments  for 


i8 


HISTORY  OF  PIANOFORTE  MUSIC. 


which  they  were  written  have  become  totally  obso- 
lete, the  style,  and  even  the  technic  of  these  compo- 
sitions is  such,  that  whoever  wishes  to  take  a  high 
rank  as  a  pianist,  must  devote  to  them  the  most 
earnest  and  diligent  study.  This  is  doubly  true  if 
the  pianist  aims  beyond  mere  technic,  at  high  ar- 
tistic qualities  and  musicianship.  Said  Robert  Schu- 
mann, "Make  the  'Well  Tempered  Clavichord'  your 
daily  bread;  then  you  will  surely  become  a  thorough 
musician."  This  advice,  coming  from  a  writer  ap- 
parently as  far  removed  as  possible  from  the  man- 
ner and  style  of  Bach,  is  highly  significant  Chopin 
and  Mendelssohn,  who,  with  Schumann,  made  the 
Modern  Romantic  School  of  pianoforte  writing, 
were  diligent  students  of  Bach,  and  drew  a  large 
part  of  their  inspiration  from  him.  These  facts  may 
help  to  show  us  how  immensely  important  Bach's 
influence  has  been,  and  still  is.  The  secret  of  this 
influence  lies  partly  in  the  profound  originality,  and 
the  inspired  quality  of  Bach's  genius,  and  partly  in  the 
unsurpassed  intellectual  grasp  and  power  by  which  his 
works  are  everywhere  characterized.  The  study  of 
a  Bach  fugue  is  an  intellectual  exercise  of  the  most 
salutary  kind;  an  exercise,  the  severity  of  whose  de- 
mands on  mental  concentration  and  on  the  power 
of  sustained  thinking,  constitutes  a  most  valuable 
means  of  intellectual  discipline.  There  is  no  keener 
intellectual  pleasure  than  these  works  afford,  to  him 
who  has  mastered  them. 

Bach's  instrumental  works  are  the  culmination 
of  the  polyphonic  or  contrapuntal  style.    Up  to  his 


G.  F.  HA  EN  DEL. 


19 


time  this  was  the  prevalent  manner  of  writing,  and 
almost  the  only  one  cultivated  by  musicians.  The 
monophonic  style,  indeed,  had  already  a  beginning. 
Opera  airs  and  folk  songs  had  been  transferred  to 
the  keyed  instruments;  some  dance  music  also  had 
come  to  be  written  in  this  style.  But  the  aim  of  all 
composers  was  to  write  good  counterpoint,  and  that 
in  the  strict  style,  canons  and  fugues.  Freer  forms 
were  also  used,  as  described  in  the  preceding  chap- 
ter, which  gave  more  scope  to  the  fancy  of  the  com- 
poser. Though  founded  on  the  fugal  style,  they 
often  showed  a  reaching  out  after  a  freer,  more 
elastic  and  flexible  means  of  emotional  expression 
than  was  to  be  found  in  the  comparatively  stiff 
formality  of  the  strict  mode  of  writing.  One,  es- 
pecially, of  these  works,  the  Chromatic  Fantasia  of 
Bach,  is  a  distinct  prophecy  of  the  Romantic  School, 
which  was  to  appear  a  hundred  years  later. 

George  Frederick  Haendel  (commonly  called 
in  England  Handel),  was  born  in  Halle,  Feb.  23, 
1685.  His  family  was  not  musical,  and  whence  he 
obtained  his  musical  gifts  it  is  not  easy  to  determine. 
But  gifts  he  had,  which  were  not  to  be  repressed. 
His  father  was  a  physician,  who  despised  all  art  and 
artists,  and  even  went  to  the  extreme  of  keeping  his 
son  from  school,  lest  he  should  there  learn  some- 
thing of  music.  But  the  boy  learned  somehow,  in 
spite  of  his  father.  He  used  to  practice  on  an  old 
spinet,  with  muffled  strings,  which,  with  somebody's 
connivance,  he  had  hidden  in  the  garret,  and  by  the 
time  he  was  seven  years  old,  had  become  no  mean 


20 


HISTORY  OF  PIANOFORTE  MUSIC. 


Chap.  II. 


performer.  At  this  time  his  whole  future  career 
was  decided  by  the  interference  of  the  Duke  of 
Saxe-Weissenfels.  The  child  had  accompanied  his 
father  on  a  visit  to  Weissenfels,  had  managed  to  ob- 
tain access  to  the  organ  in  the  duke's  chapel,  and 
had  given  such  surprising  proofs  of  genius  that  the 
duke  strongly  urged  upon  doctor  Haendel  the  wis- 
dom of  humoring  his  son's  bent. 

He  was  now  placed  under  the  tuition  of  Zachau, 
organist  of  the  cathedral  at  Halle,  and  took  lessons 
on  the  organ,  harpsichord,  violin  and  oboe,  and  in 
counterpoint,  canon,  fugue,  and  all  the  forms  of 
composition  then  practiced.  He  wrote  a  motet 
every  week  during  the  three  years  he  remained  with 
Zachau.  His  master  then  confessed  that  he  could 
teach  him  nothing  more.  The  ten-year  old  boy  was 
sent  to  Berlin,  where  he  made  some  valuable  musi- 
cal acquaintances,  and  astonished  every  one  by  his 
surprising  improvisations  on  the  organ  and  harpsi- 
chord. 

He  soon  returned  to  Halle,  and  spent  some 
years  in  study  and  composition,  copying  large  quan- 
tities of  the  best  music  then  known.  His  father 
died,  and  left  George  and  his  mother  poor.  So  the 
boy  set  to  work  to  support  them  both.  In  1703,  he 
went  to  Hamburg  and  entered  the  orchestra  of  the 
German  opera-house,  as  a  violin  player.  He  amused 
himself  a  short  time  by  pretending  to  be  very  ignor- 
ant, but  happening  to  take  the  leader's  place  at  the 
harpsichord  one  day,  in  the  absence  of  the  regular 
conductor,  he  displayed  such  ability  as  at  once 


G.  F.  HA  EN  DEL. 


21 


placed  him  permanently  in  that  position.  He  re- 
mained here  three  years,  and  composed  his  first 
three  operas,  besides  other  compositions.  The  suc- 
cess of  these,  his  pay  at  the  theater,  and  what  he 
had  earned  by  giving  lessons,  had  enabled  him  to 
lay  up  a  considerable  sum,  beyond  what  was  re- 
quired to  support  himself  and  his  mother.  So  he  de- 
termined to  make  a  musical  pilgrimage  to  Italy,  the 
country  which  had  been  the  field  of  labor  of  some  of 
the  greatest  of  the  Netherland  contrapuntists,  where 
the  ancient  contrapuntal  style  of  Catholic  church 
music  had  culminated  in  Palestrina,  where  the  opera 
had  first  been  called  into  existence, — the  country 
whose  leadership  in  music  was  still  unquestioned. 

He  spent  three  years  in  the  great  musical  centers 
of  Italy,  Rome,  Venice,  Naples  and  Florence.  He 
composed  successful  operas,  church  music  and  a 
serenata,  and  made  the  acquaintance  of  the  most 
distinguished  Italian  musicians,  among  them,  Do- 
menico  Scarlatti.  These  men  received  him  with  the 
greatest  cordiality,  and  expressed  the  highest  ad- 
miration both  of  his  compositions,  and  of  his  skill  as 
an  organist  and  harpsichordist.  In  1709  he  re- 
turned to  Germany,  and  accepted  a  conductor's 
post  from  the  Elector  of  Hanover,  on  condition  of 
being  allowed  to  visit  England.  He  accordingly 
went  to  London  in  17 10,  and  at  once  composed  the 
opera  ^^Rinaldo,'  to  an  Italian  libretto,  for  the  Hay- 
market  Theater.  The  work,  though  written  in  only 
fourteen  days,  was  received  with  the  greatest  en- 
thusiasm, and  Haendel  immediately  found  him.self 


22 


HISTORY  OF  PIANOFORTE  MUSIC. 


famous.  He  stayed  in  London  only  six  months,  as 
his  leave  of  absence  had  expired,  but  after  his  Lon- 
don triumph,  his  life  and  work  in  Hanover  no 
longer  contented  him. 

Early  in  17 12,  he  again  obtained  leave  of  absence, 
and  coming  to  London,  he  lingered  far  beyond  the 
time  allowed  him.  This  naturally  offended  his  mas- 
ter, the  elector,  and  when  that  prince  came  to  En- 
gland as  George  I,  Haendel  thought  it  best  to  avoid 
showing  himself  to  the  new  monarch.  However,  it 
was  soon  made  up  between  them.  The  king  ar- 
ranged some  festivity  on  the  Thames,  and  one  of 
his  suite  advised  Haendel  to  compose  some  music 
for  the  occasion.  This  he  did,  and  following  the 
king's  barge,  in  a  boat,  with  his  band,  he  played  it, 
greatly  to  his  majesty's  satisfaction.  George  I  was 
too  good  a  judge  of  music  to  deprive  himself  longer 
of  the  services  of  such  a  musician,  so  he  not  only 
received  him  into  favor,  but  granted  him  an  an- 
nuity of  two  hundred  pounds. 

The  two  years  from  17 16  to  17 18  Haendel  spent 
with  the  king  in  Hanover.  Then  returning  to  England, 
he  became  chapel-master  to  the  Duke  of  Chandos,  a 
wealthy  nobleman,  who  lived  in  a  style  of  great 
splendor.  He  remained  in  this  post  three  years, 
writing  music  for  the  English  church  service,  and 
harpsichord  music  for  the  daughters  of  the  Prince 
of  Wales,  who  were  his  pupils.  He  also  wrote  here 
his  so-called  "  Serenata,"  ^^Acis  and  Galatea,''  and 
^^Esther,''  his  first  English  oratorio.    He  had  written 


G.  F.  HAENDEL. 


a  German  oratorio,  the  '^Passio}^'  during  his  last 
stay  in  Hanover. 

In  1720  he  became  director  of  Italian  Opera  for 
the  Academy  of  Music,  and  from  this  time,  for 
seventeen  years,  he  was  constantly  engaged  in  com- 
posing operas,  and  managing  operatic  enterprises, 
with  varying  success.  At  last,  in  1737,  he  became 
bankrupt.  He  made  a  few  ineffectual  efforts  to  re- 
cover himself,  during  the  next  two  years,  and  then 
turned  his  attention  almost  exclusively  to  the  com- 
position of  English  oratorios.  Here  he  found  his 
real  field.  He  had  had  more  than  forty  years  of  ex- 
perience as  a  composer,  and  all  the  resources  of 
musical  expression  then  known  were  perfectly  at  his 
command.  His  imagination  was  vivid  and  power- 
ful and  dealt  most  vigorously  with  the  sublimest  re- 
ligious conceptions.  So  that  in  "The  Messiah," 
"  Samson,"  "  Saul,"  "Judas  Maccabaeus,"  and  "  Is- 
rael in  Egypt,"  he  created  imperishable  works,  of 
the  loftiest  character. 

Haendel  was  a  large,  vigorous  man,  open-hearted 
and  generous,  passionate  and  hot-tempered,  but  very 
placable,  of  unconquerable  will,  energetic,  industri- 
ous, and  withal  full  of  genuine  religious  feeling. 
The  themes  he  loved  to  treat  were  such  as  called 
forth  joyful  adoration  and  worship.  The  two  great 
climaxes  in  "  The  Messiah,"  the  "Hallelujah  "  chorus 
and  "Worthy  is  The  Lamb,"  are  unsurpassed  and 
unsurpassable  as  expressions  of  this  phase  of  re- 
ligious emotion.    He  could  treat  the  tender  and  pa- 


24 


HISTORY  OF  PIANOFORTE  MUSIC. 


thetic  aspects  of  the  Messiah's  life  and  work  with  no 
less  depth  and  nobility  of  feeling.  Witness  his  "  Be- 
hold the  Lamb  of  God,"  and  "  He  was  Despised." 
A  comparison  of  these  with  parallel  passages  in 
Bach's  "  Passion  Music  "  will  reveal  the  character- 
istic differences  in  the  emotional  natures  of  the  two 
men.  Bach  naturally  dwells  on  the  scenes  of  the 
Passion  and  Crucifixion;  he  dissolves  in  tears  and 
grief,  he  melts  in  contrition,  in  penitence,  in  loving, 
grateful,  humble  worship.  Haendel,  too,  feels  all 
this,  but  in  a  different  way,  and  he  does  not  linger 
on  it;  he  hastens  on  to  exult  in  the  glorious  triumph 
of  the  risen  Redeemer,  to  shout  forth  Hallelujahs 
in  some  of  the  sublimest  strains  ever  uttered  by 
man. 

In  these  oratorios  Haendel  left  his  noblest  legacy 
to  the  world.  His  organ  and  harpsichord  music,  on 
account  of  which  latter  he  is  necessarily  mentioned 
in  this  history,  was  much  less  significant.  Never- 
theless, some  of  it  is  of  permanent  value,  as,  for  in- 
stance, his  "  Fire  "  fugue,  and  his  so-called  "  Har- 
monious Blacksmith,"  and  he  can  not  be  passed 
over  without  honorable  mention,  since  he  was,  next 
to  Bach,  the  greatest  German  organist  and  harpsi- 
chordist of  his  time,  as  well  as  one  of  the  greatest 
composers  of  all  time.  He  lived  unmarried,  died  in 
London  April  14,  1759,  and  was  buried  in  West- 
minster Abbey. 

DoMENico  Scarlatti,  born  in  Naples  in  1683, 
was  the  son  of  Alessandro  Scarlatti,  a  composer 
of  church  music  of  no  small  importance  in  musical 


DOMENICO  SCARLATTI.  2$ 

history,  Domenico's  significance  lies  chiefly  in  the  Chap^i 
fact  that  he  was  a  most  brilUant  virtuoso  upon  the 
harpsichord,  and  a  composer  of  pieces  which  not 
only  surprise  even  the  advanced  pianists  of  the 
present  day  by  their  brilliancy  and  difficulty  (they 
are,  in  fact,  more  difficult  to  play  on  a  modern 
concert  pianoforte  than  on  a  harpsichord  of  Scar- 
latti's time),  but  which  are  of  no  small  musical  sig- 
nificance and  value.  He  traveled  much,  met  Haen- 
del  in  Venice,  was  some  years  chapel  master  at  the 
Vatican,  in  Rome,  played  in  London,  in  Lisbon,  in 
Italy  again,  and  finally  settled  in  Madrid,  in  1739. 
Here  he  remained,  admired  and  respected,  as  com- 
poser and  virtuoso,  until  his  death,  in  1757. 

Scarlatti  was  not,  like  Bach  and  Haendel,  a  great 
creative  genius  of  the  first  rank,  but  his  harpsichord 
compositions,  although  greatly  inferior  in  intrinsic 
significance  and  permanent  influence  and  value  to 
those  of  Bach,  are  probably  nearly  equal  to  most  of 
Haendel's,  and  are  even  more  difficult  of  execution 
than  any  of  his,  so  that  in  any  history  of  pianoforte 
music,  he  must  occupy  a  prominent  and  an  honorable 
place. 


//£s  music 
compared 
"with  Bach 
and 

Haendel. 


PAET  SECOND. 

The  Seco]S"d  Classical  Period. 

A.    The  Epoch  of  the  Development  of  the 
Sonata-Form. 


1 750-1 800. 


CHAPTER  III. 


MONOPHONIC   MUSIC — ITS  FORMAL  CONSTRUCTION  

THE  SONATA-FORM. 


Monophonic  as  distinguished  from  polyphonic 
music  has  already  been  defined.  (See  Chap.  I.)  It 
was  originally  vocal.  The  monophonic  composi- 
tions for  the  harpsichord  grew  out  of  the  use  of  this 
instrument  as  an  accompaniment  to  the  recitatives 
and  airs  of  the  opera,  a  form  of  composition  which 
came  into  existence  in  Italy  in  the  lattej  part  of  the 
i6th  century. 

These  airs  and  their  accompaniments  were  soon 
played  on  the  keyed  instruments  in  use,  and 
gradually  separate  instrumental  compositions  in  the 
same  style  came  into  vogue.  These  existed  side 
by  side  with  compositions  of  the  prevalent  poly- 
phonic style,  and  gradually  became  popular.  In- 
deed, the  tendency  toward  the  monophonic  style 
showed  itself  even  in  many  polyphonic  composi- 
tions for  the  harpsichord,  by  such  masters  as  Sebas- 
tian Bach  and  Haendel.  In  many  of  their  suites,  we 
find,  in  dances  which  are  essentially  polyphonic, 
numerous  instances  of  sudden  chords,  filled  up  to 
double  the  number  of  voice  parts  properly  belong- 
ing to  the  plan.  These  are  hints  of  the  employment 
of  chords  in  masses,  to  produce  climaxes,  or  to  re- 
inforce loud  passages,  which  is  one  of  the  important 

29 


30 


HISTORY  OF  PIANOFORTE  MUSIC. 


characteristics  of  monophonic  music.  Many  of 
these  dances  were  also  monophonic,  in  the  sense 
that  they  had  one  predominant  lyric  melody,  to 
which  the  remaining  contrapuntal  voices  were  subor- 
dinate. 

Domenico  Scarlatti  went  farther,  and  composed 
sonatas,  monophonic  in  almost  the  same  sense  in 
which  the  sonatas  of  Haydn  and  Mozart  are  mono- 
phonic. In  these,  as  a  rule,  only  one  melody  is 
heard  at  a  time.  The  accompaniment  is  made  up 
of  chords,  more  or  less  full,  or  of  arpeggios.  The 
melody  is  taken  up,  now  by  one  voice  and  now  by 
another,  the  accompaniment  being  also  transposed. 

These  sonatas  of  Scarlatti's  are  the  most  eminent 
examples,  known  to  the  present  writer,  of  mono- 
phonic music  before  the  death  of  Sebastian  Bach. 
They  are  compositions  in  07ie  movement  only.  The 
only  compositions  for  the  harpsichord  in  more  than 
one  movement,  at  that  time,  were  the  suites,  previ- 
ously referred  to,  partitas  and  concertos.  Sebastian 
Bach  wrote  organ  sonatas  in  three  movements,  and 
his  son  Carl  Philip  Emanuel  wrote  similar  ones  for 
the  harpsichord,  of  which  two  movements  were  com- 
monly in  the  "sonata-form,"  on  a  smaller  scale  than 
those  of  later  writers. 

The  sonata,  as  now  understood,  is  a  composition 
made  up  of  a  series  of  pieces,  commonly  three  or 
four,  arranged  so  as  to  contrast  with  each  other  in 
movement,  and  in  emotional  content.  A  symphony 
is  simply  a  sonata  written  for  orchestra,  differing 
from  the  pianoforte  sonata  only  in  being  laid  out  on 


MONOPHONIC  MUSIC. 


31 


a  larger  scale.  Trios,  quartets,  quintets,  concertos,  Chap^iii 
etc.,  are  composed  on  the  same  plan.  They  are 
simply  sonatas  for  several  instruments.  The  sepa- 
rate compositions  of  which  a  sonata  is  made  up  are 
called  "  movements,"  from  the  fact  that  they  differ  ^ 
in  the  rate  of  speed.  The  more  common  order  is  as  ments^' 
follows:  The  first  movement  is  an  allegro — a  rapid, 
vigorous,  spirited  or  lively  composition,  somewhat 
long  and  elaborate.  The  second  movement  is  an 
adagio — slow,  deeply  tender  or  sad — or  else  an 
andante — pensive,  tender,  perhaps  melancholy.  The 
third  movement  is  an  allegretto,  perhaps  a  stately 
minuet,  or  a  playful  scherzo.  Both  these  movements 
are  comparatively  short.  The  last  movement  is  a 
lively  allegro,  or,  perhaps,  a  fiery,  rushing  presto, 
generally  of  considerable  length.  This  order  is 
often  varied,  but  the  principles  of  contrast  involved 
in  it  must  always  underlie  whatever  order  of  move- 
ment may  be  adopted.  But  the  term  "  Sonata-  ^^sonata- 
Form "  in  its  narrow,  technical  sense,  applies,  not 
to  the  sonata  as  a  whole,  but  to  the  form  of  compo- 
sition commonly  adopted  in  one,  or  at  most  two  of 
the  separate  movements  which  make  up  a  sonata, 
the  construction  of  which  must  now  be  explained. 

First  of  all,  it  is  necessary  to  understand  clearly 
what  is  meant  by  "  form  "  in  music.  "  Form  "  has  ''Form:' 
to  do  with  melody,  mainly;  with  the  rhythmical  reg- 
ulations of  successions  of  tones,  on  a  large  scale. 
Melody,  in  order  to  be  intelligible,  or  any  way  satis- 
factory, must  be  begun,  continued  and  brought  to  a 
close  in  accordance  with  some  definite  plan.  The 


32 


HISTORY  OF  PIANOFORTE  MUSIC. 


chief  requirements  of  this  plan,  like  those  of  any- 
work  of  art,  are  three,  viz.:  Unity,  Variety  and 
Symmetry. 

The  simplest  fofm  of  composition  which  can 
give  any  satisfaction,  regarded  as  a  completed 
whole,  is  a  single  Period,  the  nearest  analogue 
of  which  is  a  single  couplet.  A  good  example 
of  this  is  in  the  church  tune,  "  Onward,  Christian 
Soldier,"  in  "  Hymns,  Ancient  and  Modern,"  Here 
the  period  is  divided  into  two  sections,  to  fit  the  two 
lines  of  the  couplet,  and  these  two  sections  are  bal- 
anced against  each  other,  symmetrically.  More 
commonly  the  two  sections  of  a  simple  period  are 
each  divided  by  a  ccesura,  or  point  of  partial 
repose.  Indeed,  such  a  division  is  plainly  to  be 
seen  in  the  tune  above  cited.  Each  of  the  two  di- 
visions of  each  section  is  then  called  a  phrase. 
More  frequently  than  otherwise,  the  third  phrase  is 
nearly  or  quite  an  exact  repetition  of  the  first,  and 
the  fourth  similarly  reminds  one  of  the  second,  that 
is,  they  rhyme  with  each  other,  so  that  such  a  simple 
period  is  closely  analogous  to  the  ballad  stanza.  It 
is,  in  fact,  the  form  commonly  and  necessarily  used 
in  setting  such  stanzas  to  music.  The  point  of  re- 
pose at  the  end  of  the  first  section  (second  phrase) 
is  more  marked  than  those  which  finish  the  first  and 
third  phrases,  but  is  still  only  a  half  stop,  or  musical 
semicolon.  The  last  section  of  course  closes  the 
period  by  a  full  stop.  A  good  example  of  this  form 
is  the  first  period  of  the  theme  in  the  A  major  son- 
ata of  Mozart  (No.  12,  Peters'  edition). 


MONOPHONIC  MUSIC. 


33 


Another  thing  must  now  be  noticed  about  this 
perit)d,  viz. :  that  what  gives  unity  to  it  is  the  repeated 
employment  of  a  smgle  melodic  fragment  as  a  pat- 
tern or  design.  The  melodic  idea,  or  "motive,"  of 
the  first  measure  is  repeated  in  the  second,  but  in 
different  pitch.  The  third  measure  is  less  obviously 
an  imitation  of  the  first,  but  still  has  nothing  incongru- 
ous with  it.  The  second  and  fourth  phrases  have 
motives  differing  slightly  from  that  of  the  first  and 
third,  but  still  analogous  to  it,  and  possibly  derived 
from  it,  or  at  least  suggested  by  it.  This  use  of 
one  or  a  few  simple  motives,  of  which  the  case  cited 
is  a  very  simple  example,  is  carried  out  on  the  most 
elaborate  scale  in  all  large  compositions.  In  the 
hands  of  a  master,  this  multifarious  transformation 
of  the  original  motive  invented,  prevents  unity  from 
becoming  uniformity,  continually  presents  them  in 
new  and  interesting  lights,  and  develops  from  them, 
as  from  germs,  a  complex  and  elaborate  whole,  sat- 
factory  to  the  intellect  and  to  the  artistic  sense. 

When  the  composer  comes  to  add  a  second  period 
to  his  first,  this  new  period  will  most  naturally  be  a  fy-^^^^ll^f^ 
simple  one,  like  the  first,  made  up  of  two  symmetri-  Yn'toperL i 
cal  sections,  balanced  against  each  other  as  antece-  groups. 
dent  and  consequent.    This  period,  however,  must 
not  be  wholly  new,  else  we  should  have  not  one  compo- 
sition, made  up  of  two  periods,  but  two  compositions 
of  one  complete  period  each,  wholly  unrelated.  The 
new  period  must,  of  course,  contain  new  materials,  or  at 
least  a  fresh  treatment  of  the  old  ones,  otherwise  it 
would  be  merely  a  repetition  of  the  first  period, 
c 


Chap.  III. 
Motives. 


34 


HISTORY  OF  PIAN-OFORTE  MUSIC. 


Chap^iii.  But  ^ith  variety  there  must  also  be  imity.  The  com- 
mon way  of  uniting  a  second  period  with  a  first  to  form 
I  a  composition  is  to  make  the  first  section  of  the  new 
I  period  new  and  fresh,  while  the  second  section  is  a 
I  more  or  less  exact  repetition  of  the  closing  section 
of  the  first  period.  This  is  precisely  the  plan 
;  of  the  Mozart  example  just  cited,  except  that  the 
second  period,  instead  of  coming  to  a  full  stop  at  the 
end  of  the  eight  measures,  which  would  make  it  a 
simple  period,  is  prolonged  by  the  addition  of  a 
phrase  of  two  measures,  by  which  a  very  effective 
climax  is  produced,  without  in  the  least  impairing 
the  impression  of  symmetry. 

This  form  is  the  germ  from  which  all  the  musical 
forms  have  sprung.    It  is  in  two  divisions,  balanced 
against  each  other  as  are  the  two  sections  of  a  sim- 
ple period.    It  may  be  enlarged  by  making  each  di- 
^Zups^^"'^  vision  consist  of  a  period-group  of  two  or  more 
7ntoi!^^'^     simple  periods  united.    But  in  the  shorter  forms, 
whfie        when  each  simple  or  prolonged  period  comes  to  a 
^  full  stop,  the  first  division  is  commonly  one  period 
only,  the  second  being  composed  either  of  one  or 
two  periods,  with  perhaps  a  coda.    With  this  is  con- 
trasted another  similar  form,  often  called  a  "  Trio," 
after  which  the  original  form  is  repeated,  for  the 
sake  of  unity.    This  is  the  form  in  which  marches, 
waltzes,  etc.,  are  written.    A  good  example  of  it  is 
the  andante  of  the  sonata  in  C  (No.  2,  of  the  Peters 
edition)   by   Mozart.     All   the   slow  movements, 
minuets  and  scherzi  of  the  Mozart  and  Beethoven 


MONOPHONIC  MUSIC. 


35 


sonatas  are  in  this  form,  so  that  examples  are  easily- 
accessible. 

The  sonata-form  is  the  most  elaborate  and  ex- 
tended of  the  forms  which  have  been  developed 
from  the  elementary  plan  given  above.  Like  the 
forms  heretofore  cited,  it  has  two  main  divisions. 
In  its  most  extended  form,  as  developed  in  the  or- 
chestral symphony,  each  of  these  divisions  is  com- 
posed of  several  period-groups,  as  follows: 

DIVISION  I. 

I.  Principal  Subject. 
II.  Transition. 

III.  Second  Subject  (in  the  Key  of  the  Domin- 

ant). 

IV.  Transition. 

V.  Conclusion  (in  the  Key  of  the  Dominant). 
This  division  is  repeated. 

DIVISION  II. 

I.  Elaboration,  in  which  the  ideas  of  the  first 
division  are  turned  over,  modulated  into 
different  keys,  presented  in  new  lights,  and 
combined  and  developed  in  various  ways. 
II.  Transition. 
III.  Repetition  of  the  whole  of  the  first  main  di- 
vision, the  second  subject  and  conclusion 
being  this  time  in  the  key  of  the  Tonic. 
In  the  case  of  pianoforte  sonatas,  this  form  is 
often  abbreviated,  by  making  some  of  the  transitions 


Plan  of  the 

sonata- 

form. 


36 


HISTORY  OF  PIANOFORTE  MUSIC. 


belong  to  the  period-groups  of  the  main  ideas,  in- 
stead of  forming  separate  groups,  and  by  making 
the  elaboration,  and,  in  fact,  nearly  all  the  period- 
groups  shorter  than  in  the  most  elaborate  works. 
It  is  to  be  noted  also  that  in  this  form  the  periods 
which  are  associated  in  groups  no  longer  end  with 
full  stops.  These  are  reserved  for  the  close  of 
groups  or  even  of  larger  divisions.  The  periods 
follow  each  other  in  continuous  discourse,  and  are 
distinguished  from  one  another  not  so  much  by  the 
cadences  as  by  the  grouping  of  the  ideas. 

This  is  the  briefest  possible  outline  of  Form,  as 
now  developed  in  monophonic  music.  In  the  strict 
polyphonic  style  of  Sebastian  Bach,  as  shown  in  his 
fugues,  the  most  important  productions  of  that  style, 
Form,  consisted  in  the  orderly  arrangement  and  suc- 
cession of  the  different  groups  formed  by  the  sepa- 
rate entries  of  the  subject  and  answer.  Thus  the 
"  exposition "  formed  the  first  group,  the  second 
complete  entry  of  the  subject  and  answer  made  a 
second  group,  in  which  the  voices  entered  in  a  dif- 
ferent order,  by  way  of  contrast.  The  same  princi- 
ples of  Unity,  Variety  and  Symmetry  which  under- 
lie the  construction  of  a  modern  sonata,  controlled 
the  fugue  also.  But  there  were  no  "periods,"  in 
the  monophonic  sense.  But  in  Bach's  compositions 
in  the  free  style,  as,  for  instance,  in  the  Gavotte  in 
D  minor,  in  the  Sixth  English  Suite,  and  in  others, 
we  find  examples  of  simple  period  structure.  In- 
deed, both  this  gavotte,  and  the  "  musette,"  which 
alternates  with  it,  are  almost  exactly  in  the  form  of 


POL  y PHONIC  MUSIC. 


the  andante  of  the  Mozart  sonata  in  C,  cited  above. 
They  are  polyphonic  in  the  sense  that  each  has  more 
than  one  real  melody  ;  for  the  bass  is  a  "  counter- 
point," and  not  a  mere  foundation  nor  a  series  of 
accompanying  arpeggios.  But  their  form  is  precisely 
that  of  monophonic  music,  and  it  is  so  because  there 
is  one  principal  melody  to  which  the  counterpoint  is 
subordinate.  This  melody  is  necessarily  governed 
by  the  principles  summarized  in  the  above  outline, 
for  it  is  its  accordance  with  these  principles  that 
makes  it  clearly  intelligible. 


CHAPTER  IV. 


THE  THREE  COMPOSERS,  THROUGH  WHOM  THE 
SONATA-FORM  WAS  DEVELOPED  TO  ITS  LOGICAL 
LIMITS: 

C.  P.  E.  Bach,  1714-1788. 
Joseph  Haydn,  1732-1809. 
W.  A.  Mozart,  i 756-1 791. 


I.  Carl  Philipp  Emanuel  Bach  was  the  third 
son  of  Johann  Sebastian,  and  was  born  at  Weimar, 
March  14,  1714-  He  was  precocious,  showed  un- 
usual intellectual  ability,  and  though  his  father 
taught  him  music,  as  a  matter  of  course,  he  never- 
theless planned  for  him  a  very  different  career  from 
that  of  a  musician.  He  sent  him  to  the  Thomas 
School  in  Leipzig,  and  afterwards  to  the  university 
of  the  same  city,  and  still  later  to  that  at  Frankfort- 
on-the-Oder,  to  study  law.  Emanuel  thus  became 
a  highly  educated  and  cultivated  man,  and  when,  in 
1737,  he  determined  to  relinquish  the  law  for  music, 
he  was  not  only  an  excellent  musician,  but  a  man  of 
such  breadth  and  universality  of  culture  as  ensured 
him  a  wide  influence  among  men  not  especially  con- 
nected with  his  chosen  profession. 

He  began  his  career  as  a  professional  musician  in 
Berlin,  where  he  became  a  great  favorite  with  Fred- 
erick the  Great.  That  monarch  gave  him  a  special 
38 


C.  p.  E.  BACH. 


39 


court  appointment  as  chamber-musician  and  harpsi- 
chordist, and  being  an  amateur  flute  player,  he 
made  it  Bach's  special  duty  to  accompany  his  solos 
at  his  private  concerts.  Bach  held  this  post  until 
the  Seven  Years  War  broke  out,  in  1757,  when  he 
went  to  Hamburg,  became  an  organist  and  church 
music  director,  and  remained  there,  as  musician  and 
composer,  until  his  death  in  1788.  He  wrote  large 
quantities  of  harpsichord  music,  some  of  it  with  or- 
chestral accompaniment,  church  music,  orchestral 
music,  oratorios,  songs,  etc.,  and  an  important  in- 
struction book,  "  On  the  true  manner  of  playing  the 
clavichord,"  which  contained  his  own  and  the  best 
of  his  father's  ideas  on  technic,  style  and  interpreta- 
tion. 

Personally  he  was  kind  and  polite,  and  he  was  al- 
ways beloved  and  respected  for  his  personal  char-, 
acter,  his  industry,  his  ability  and  attainments  as 
critic,  teacher,  composer  and  conductor.  His  spe- 
cial significance  as  composer  in  the  history  of 
pianoforte  music,  lies  in  the  fact,  that  in  his  works 
the  decisive  step  from  the  polyphonic  to  the  mono- 
phonic  style  was  taken. 

In  Sebastian  Bach,  the  Fugue  had  reached  its 
climax.  No  advance  was  possible,  either  in  the  de- 
velopment of  the  polyphonic  forms,  or  in  their 
adaptation  to  the  expression  of  a  new  content. 
Progress  was  now  to  be  made  in  a  wholly  new  di- 
rection. The  germs  of  the  monophonic  style  had 
existed  for  more  than  a  century,  and  this  style  had 
even  been  considerably  developed.     Short  forms 


40 


HISTORY  OF  PIANOFORTE  MUSIC. 


had  been  developed,  more  or  less  unconsciously, 
"  Sonatas "  had  been  written,  and  enough  had  al- 
ready been  done,  so  that,  as  soon  as  it  had  clearly 
become  impossible  to  do  anything  more,  in  the  strict 
polyphonic  style,  than  imitate  Sebastian  Bach,  the 
channel  into  which  the  musical  impulse  was  now  to 
be  turned  became  perfectly  clear.  The  monophonic 
style  was  to  be  cultivated,  and  to  become  predomin- 
ant, and,  first  of  all,  the  forjn  of  it  was  to  be  devel- 
oped, the  principles  of  orderly  succession  of  melodic 
members  were  to  be  discovered  and  established;  the 
means  of  securing  Unity,  of  enhancing  interest  by 
means  of  Variety  and  Contrast,  and  of  satisfying  the 
sense  of  order,  symmetry  and  proportion,  were  to 
become  familiar  by  gradual  experience,  by  theory 
and  practice. 

Natural  constitution,  acquired  culture  and  sur- 
rounding circumstances  combined  to  make  Emanuel 
Bach  a  leader  in  this  new  direction.  He  was  not  a 
genius  of  the  highest  rank.  There  was  nothing  gi- 
gantic or  colossal  about  his  aims,  his  ideas,  his  im- 
agination, his  intellectual  powers,  his  emotional 
capacities  or  his  religious  experiences.  The  reign 
of  the  giants  had  closed  with  Sebastian  Bach  and 
Haendel.  To  them  were  to  succeed  a  race  of  more 
commonplace  musicians,  who  had,  nevertheless, 
their  own  special  and  important  work  to  do. 

Emanuel  Bach  was  simply  a  highly  cultivated 
man,  of  respectable  abilities,  a  well-trained  and  ac- 
complished musician,  who  sought  to  compose  and 
play  in  a  tasteful,  elegant  and  pleasing  style.  There 


C.  p.  E.  BACH. 


41 


seems  to  have  been  a  sudden  reaction  in  the  public 
mind,  against  the  style  of  music  which  Sebastian 
Bach  cultivated,  and  of  which  he  was  the  most  dis- 
tinguished representative.  After  his  death,  his 
works  fell  into  speedy  oblivion.  For  almost  a 
century  they  slumbered,  before  the  world  again 
began  to  realize  what  a  mighty  genius  had  worked 
in  the  old  Leipzig  cantor,  and  to  seek  diligently 
for  the  treasures  he  had  left  behind,  a  precious 
bequest  to  posterity. 

The  public  seemed  tired  of  the  severity  of  the 
fugal  style;  they  shunned  the  bracing  intellectual 
exertion  needed  for  its  intelligent  comprehension, 
and  preferred  music  which  should  give  immediate 
pleasure,  without  requiring  much  mental  strain  on 
the  part  of  the  hearer.  Thus  it  naturally  happened 
that  the  popular  musicians  of  this  generation  culti- 
vated the  simpler  forms  of  the  monophonic  style. 
Into  this  they  imported  such  ideas  of  thematic  treat- 
ment as  they  could  transfer  from  the  older  schools 
of  free  polyphony.  They  made  it  the  medium  of 
such  expression  as  they  were  capable  of,  and  de- 
veloped and  enlarged  the  small  forms  according  to 
their  intellectual  ability.  But  above  all,  taste,  ele- 
gance, were  the  watchwords. 

Emanuel  Bach's  most  important  work  was  in  the 
form  he  gave  the  sonata.  The  sonatas  of  Scarlatti 
had  been  in  one  movement  only,  and  though  this 
movement  was  not  yet  a  "  Sonata-Form,"  or  "  First- 
movement  "  form,  in  the  modern  sense,  it  was  the 
germ  of  it.    Its  plan  was,  in  general,  as  follows:  It 


42 


HISTORY  OF  PIANOFORTE  MUSIC. 


was  in  two  divisions.  Division  I  contained  the  "ex- 
position" of  the  sonata.  It  consisted  of  several 
groups  of  phrases,  which  perhaps  ought  to  be  called 
periods,  since  they  were  commonly  separated  by 
more  or  less  decisive  cadences,  and  were  generally 
characterized  by  different  motives.  The  leading 
motive  of  the  first  period  was  commonly  the  most 
important,  being,  in  fact,  a  principal  subject,  all 
other  motives  being  subordinate  and  accessory- 
After  this  subject  had  been  announced,  in  the  prin- 
cipal key,  new  motives  were  introduced,  and  modu- 
lation began,  pointing  toward  a  new  key  in  which  the 
division  was  to  close.  This  key  was  generally  that  of 
the  Dominant,  if  the  principal  key  was  major,  or  if 
it  was  minor,  then  the  new  key  was  commonly  that 
of  the  Relative  Major,  or  sometimes  the  minor  key 
of  the  Dominant. 

The  periods  succeeding  the  first  were  simply  a 
series  of  modulatory  phrases,  often  spun  out  to  con- 
siderable length,  and  digressing  into  a  considerable 
number  of  more  or  less  closely  related  keys,  before 
the  goal  was  finally  reached.  The  division  was  then 
brought  to  a  close  by  an  extended  cadence.  There 
are  but  very  few  cases  where  one  of  the  subordinate 
motives  stands  in  such  a  relation  to  the  principal 
one,  and  to  the  others,  that  it  can  be  fairly  called  a 
Second  Subject.  There  is  an  example  of  this  in 
No.  7  of  Kohler's  selections  from  Scarlatti's  sonatas 
(i2  Fugues  and  Sonatas,  Section  3  of  the  Classical 
High  School  for  pianists,  published  by  Julius  Schu- 
berth  &  Co.,  Leipzig).    This  second  subject  is  lyric, 


C.  p.  E.  BACH. 


43 


very  well  contrasted  with  the  principal  subject,  and 
the  form  of  the  sonata  approximates  that  of  Eman- 
uel Bach.  But  this  is  an  exceptional  case,  and 
seems  to  be  the  result  of  accident  rather  than  of  de- 
sign. Still,  it  shows  the  direction  in  which  the  form 
of  monophonic  music  was  tending. 

The  second  division  of  the  Scarlatti  sonata  com- 
monly had  a  plan  closely  analogous  to  that  of  the 
first  division.  It  started  with  the  principal  subject, 
in  the  key  in  which  the  first  division  closed,  or  in 
some  other  key  not  too  [remote  from  the  original 
tonic,  then  introduced  the  subordinate  motives  in 
much  the  same  order  as  they  occurred  in  the  first 
division,  and  modulated  back  to  the  principal  key, 
in  which  the  sonata  began,  closing  in  this  key,  with 
an  extended  cadence.  The  style  of  these  sonatas 
was  commonly  partly  monophonic  and  partly  free 
polyphony.  The  periods,  if  periods  they  must  be 
called,  seldom  had  any  definite  symmetrical  balance 
of  antecedent  and  consequent.  They  were  irregu- 
lar as  to  the  number  of  measures  or  of  phrases,  and 
the  composer's  sense  of  symmetry  and  proportion, 
though  evidently  present,  seems  to  have  been  unde- 
veloped, and  to  be  working  blindly,  groping  its  way 
toward  a  clearness  of  form  which  was  not  yet  attain- 
able. 

In  these  respects,  Scarlatti's  sonatas  were  closely 
analogous  to  many  of  the  larger  dance  forms 
in  the  suites  of  his  contemporaries.  Bach  and  Haen- 
del.  Indeed,  the  forms  of  these  dances  are  not  dis- 
tinguishable from  that  of  the  so-called  "  sonatas  "  in 


44 


HISTORY  OF  PIANOFORTE  MUSIC. 


Chap.  IV.  question,  and  Dr.  Hans  von  Buelow,  in  his  selection 
of  eighteen  pieces  by  Scarlatti  (No.  277  of  the  edi- 
tion of  C.  F.  Peters,  in  Leipzig),  has  given  the 
names  of  dances  of  the  period  to  a  number  of  these 
sonatas  "  (with  entire  propriety,  so  far  as  the  form 
and  character  of  the  pieces  are  concerned),  for  the 
purpose  of  making  them  more  attractive.  In  these 
Symmetry  writers  there  are  many  small  dance  forms  which  are 
smaller  aS  regular  and  symmetrical  in  the  construction  and 
/arms,  balance  of  their  periods  as  any  to  be  found  in  the 
works  of  Haydn  or  Mozart.  This  was  due,  proba- 
bly, to  their  being  founded  on  vocal  forms  fitted  to 
the  ballad  stanza,  which  served  as  the  germ  for  the 
development  of  the  monophonic  forms.  But  these 
larger  forms  were  still  more  influenced  by  the  elab- 
orate style  of  the  free  polyphonic  forms,  such  as  the 
prelude  and  toccata,  than  by  that  of  the  smaller 
lyric  forms,  and  partook  of  the  indefiniteness  of 
that  style.  The  lyric  and  symmetrically  formal  ele- 
ment was  slowly  pushing  forward  into  prominence, 
but  had  not  yet  given  signs  of  becoming  predom- 
inant. 

Emanuel  Bach's  "  Sonata-Forms,"  which  he  used 

E.  Bach's  . 

Sonata-      m  the  first  and  last  movements  of  his  sonatas,  were 

Forms.  ,-   r~i       i  • 

very  much  on  the  same  plan  as  those  of  Scarlatti, 
and  of  many  of  the  pieces  in  the  suites  of  Sebastian 
Bach  and  Haendel.  But  his  periods  are  often  much 
more  symmetrical  than  any  of  those  to  be  found  in 
ihe  previous  works  alluded  to,  and  there  is  a  much 
more  marked  balance  of  antecedent  and  consequent. 
They  constitute  a  distinct  advance  in  clearness  of 


C.  p.  E.  BACH. 


45 


perception  of  the  requirements  of  Form.  They 
seldom  or  never  contain  a  well-  marked  second  sub- 
ject, and  the  only  further  advance  is  in  the  point 
that  their  style  is  most  decidedly  monophonic.  Im- 
itation there  is,  and  thematic  treatment,  but  the  free 
polyphony  or  mixed  style  which  had  prevailed  in 
the  preceding  generation  in  almost  all  but  the 
smallest  and  simplest  forms,  had  now  given  place  to 
a  style  as  decidedly  and  purely  monophonic  as  that 
of  a  Mozart  Sonata. 

Besides  this,  Emanuel  Bach  wrote  sonatas  in  three 
movements,  of  which  the  first  and  third  were  "sona- 
ta-forms," and  the  middle  one  was  a  lyric  slow 
movement,  contrasted  with  the  others  in  key  and  in 
character.  This  form  was  adopted  from  him  by 
Haydn  and  Mozart,  and  their  sonatas  differ  from 
his  only  in  the  greater  development  of  the  separate 
movements. 

Let  us  now  recapitulate.  The  modern  sonata  has 
four  essential  characteristics: 

1.  It  has  at  least  three  movements. 

2.  These  movements  are  contrasted  with  one  an- 
other, in  key  and  in  character,  some  being  rapid  and 
lively,  others  slow  and  tender. 

3.  One,  at  least,  of  these  movements  is  a  "sonata- 
form." 

4.  The  movements  are  all  monophonic,  some  pre- 
dominantly thematic  and  some  lyric. 

Of  these  characteristic  features,  none  were  wholly 
new  in  Emanuel  Bach's  time. 

Sebastian  Bach  had  written  suites  in  six  or  seven 


46 


HISTORY  OF  PIANOFORTE  MUSIC. 


Chap.  IV. 


6".  Bacfi  s 
suites. 


HaendeVs 
suites. 


What 
Emanuel 
Bach  did 
for  the 
sonata. 


movements;  but  these  were  all  iii  the  same  key. 
Moreover,  some  of  them  were  in  free  polyphony. 
His  Partitas  were  simply  small  suites.  He  wrote 
"  Sonatas  "  for  the  organ  in  three  movements,  the 
first  and  third  being  allegros  and  the  middle  one  an 
adagio  or  an  andante^  but  these  were  all  strictly  poly- 
phonic. He  also  wrote  sonatas  for  the  harpsichord, 
but  these  differed  from  his  suites  only  in  admitting 
fugues  and  other  forms  which  were  not  dance-forms. 
Finally,  he  had  written  concertos  in  three  move- 
ments, the  first  and  last  being  allegros  and  the  mid- 
dle one  an  andante  or  adagio^  in  a  style  as  closely  ap- 
proaching monophony  as  did  the  sonatas  of  Scar- 
latti. These  probably  served  Emanuel  Bach  as 
models  for  his  sonatas.  But  the  three  movements 
of  these  concertos  were  all  in  the  same  key. 

Haendel  had  written  suites  which  resembled  the 
sonatas  of  Bach.  They  had  sometimes  fewer,  some- 
times more  movements.  Of  these,  one  was  often  a 
fugue.    They  were  generally  all  in  the  same  key. 

Of  Scarlatti's  sonatas,  enough  has  been  said. 

It  will  be  seen  that  no  one  characteristic  feature 
of  the  sonata  was  original  with  Emanuel  Bach,  nor 
did  he  even  develop  the  "  Sonata-Form  "  much  fur- 
ther than  his  predecessors.  What  he  did  do  that 
had  not  been  done  before  was  this  :  He  combined 
all  the  essential  characteristics  of  the  sonata  in  nu- 
merous compositions  of  such  merit  that  they  became 
models  for  his  contemporaries  and  his  immediate 
successors.  He  brought  the  exclusively  mono- 
phonic  sonata  into  vogue;  he  contributed  toward  its 


F.  J.  HA  YDN. 


47 


development  in  the  direction  of  clearness  and  sym-  Chap^iv. 
metry;  he  adopted  the  principle  of  contrast  in  key 
as  well  as  in  character,  in  the  three  movements  of 
which  his  sonatas  were  composed  ;  in  short,  he  es- 
tablished the  plan  of  the  sonata,  determined  the  di- 
rection in  which  it  was  to  develop,  and,  by  his  influ- 
ence and  example,  gave  the  most  powerful  impulse 
to  that  development.  * 
II.    Franz  {English^  Francis,)  Joseph  Haydn  F.j.Haydn. 
was  born  April  i,  1732,  in  the  little  Austrian  village 
of  Rohrau.     His  father  was  a  wheelwright.  His 
mother,  before  her  marriage,  was  a  cook  in  a  noble 
family.    They  were  honest,  industrious,  pious  peo- 
ple, fond  of  music,  but  wholly  untrained  in  it.  Little 
Joseph  used  to  sing  with  them  their  simple  songs,  in 
a  beautiful,  clear,  childish  soprano.    His  father  saw 
in  him  evidences  of  musical  talent,  and  as  there  was 
no  opportunity  for  his  proper  training  at  home,  he 
was  removed  to  school  at  Hainburg,  some  four  ^.^  ^^^^^ 
leagues  from  home,  at  the  early  age  of  six.    Here  a  ^<:f^ooiing. 
relative  of  his,  named  Frankh,  became  his  teacher. 
The  boy  was  thoroughly  well  taught,  proved  an  apt 
pupil,  and  learned  to  sing  well  and  to  play  different 
instruments. 

At  the  age  of  eight,  Reutter,  court-composer  and 

Goes  to 

conductor  at  St.  Stephen's  church,  Vienna,  being  at  Vienna  as 
Hainburg  on  a  visit,  heard  him  sing,  and  at  once  singer. 
offered  him  a  place  in  his  choir.    So  the  boy  went 
to  Vienna,  sang  in  the  cathedral  choir,  continued 
his  musical  studies,  and  also  those  of  the  school  cur- 
riculum.   His  music  lessons  did  not  include  in- 


48 


HISTORY  OF  PIANOFORTE  MUSIC. 


struction  in  Harmony  or  Composition,  but  so  strong 
was  his  natural  bent  in  this  direction  that  he  con- 
stantly practiced  it  by  himself,  working  hard  and 
spoiling  vast  quantities  of  music-paper.  Five  years 
after  he  went  to  Vienna,  his  voice  began  to  change, 
and  being  of  no  further  use  as  a  singer,  he  was  soon 
dismissed  to  shift  for  himself.  He  struggled  on,  amidst 
poverty  and  hardship,  practiced  the  violin  and  harpsi- 
chord, gave  lessons  for  his  daily  bread,  and  assiduously 
devoted  himself  to  the  study  and  practice  of  composi- 
tion. 

He  soon  made  the  acquaintance  of  some  of 
Emanuel  Bach's  sonatas,  was  greatly  interested  in 
them,  and  thenceforth  they  became  his  models. 
Bach  afterwards  declared  that  Haydn  alone  thor- 
oughly understood  his  style.  He  procured  all  the 
theoretical  works  he  could  lay  hands  on,  mastered 
their  contents,  and  gradually  exercised  himself  in 
every  species  of  composition.  He  wrote  masses, 
operas,  string-quartets,  and,  by  dint  of  hard  work, 
speedily  attained  certainty  and  facility  of  technic, 
and  independence  and  originality  of  style. 

He  began  to  make  friends.  A  wealthy  amateur 
named  von  Fuernberg  invited  him  to  his  house,  gave 
him  opportunities  to  hear  good  performances  of 
chamber  music,  and  encouraged  him  to  write  his 
first  string  quartet.  His  lessons  increased,  and  his 
price  was  raised.  His  compositions  found  sale 
among  wealthy  lovers  of  music.  In  1759  he  be- 
came conductor  of  a  small  but  good  orchestra  in  the 
employ  of  Count  Morzin,  and  wrote  his  first  sym- 


F.  J.  HA  YDN. 


49 


phony  for  it  in  the  same  year.  There  was  at  that 
time  no  musical  public.  Artists  were  obliged  to  de- 
pend solely  on  the  patronage  of  the  wealthy. 
Haydn's  salary  as  conductor  was  two  hundred  flor- 
ins (about  one  hundred  dollars).  Of  course  living 
was  cheap. 

He  determined  to  marry,  and  in  1760,  Maria 
Anna  Keller,  daughter  of  a  wigmaker,  who  had 
been  his  pupil,  became  his  wife.  She  was  three 
years  older  than  he,  had  a  bad  temper,  had  no  sym- 
pathy whatever  with  his  aims  as  an  artist,  and  was 
every  way  unsuited  to  be  the  companion  of  such  a 
man.  She  made  his  domestic  life  miserable  till 
their  separation,  a  few  years  before  her  death  in 
1800. 

Count  Morzin  was  obliged  to  dismiss  his  orches- 
tra soon  after  this,  and  in  1761,  Haydn  entered  the 
service  of  Prince  Esterhazy,  at  Eisenstadt,  his  coun- 
try seat  in  Hungary,  as  conductor  of  an  orchestra 
of  only  sixteen  members.  But  they  were  good 
players,  and  he  was  at  once  stimulated  to  do  his 
best  in  composing  for  them.  This  orchestra  had  a 
chorus  and  solo  singers  associated  with  it  for  service 
in  church  and  at  concerts,  and  Werner,  Haydn's 
predecessor,  now  an  old  man,  remained  for  a  time 
in  charge  of  the  church  music.  The  orchestra  was 
gradually  increased,  concerts  were  frequent,  rehears- 
als were  required  daily,  and  Haydn  had  enough  to 
do,  with  conducting  and  providing  new  composi- 
tions. Here  he  remained  for  nearly  thirty  years, 
and  composed  a  vast  amount  of  music,  symphonies, 
D  3 


HISTORY  OF  PIANOFORTE  MUSIC. 


Chap^iv.  chamber  music,  harpsichord  and  pianoforte  music, 
church  music,  songs,  operettas,  etc.,  until  the  or- 
chestra was  finally  disbanded.  He  then  returned  to 
Vienna,  but  was  immediately  invited  to  London,  by 
Salomon,  the  English  publisher.  Thither  he  went, 
in  the  winter  of  1790-1.  Before  this,  he  had  become 
acquainted  with  Mozart,  had  formed  the  highest 
opinion  of  his  genius,  and  the  two  had  become 
warm  friends. 

Visits  In  London  he  was  received  with  the  greatest  en- 

London.  thusiasm.  He  composed  six  symphonies  for  Salo- 
mon's concerts,  conducted  them  at  the  pianoforte, 
and  afterwards  gave  other  concerts,  all  of  which 
were  extremely  successful.  He  remained  about  a 
year  and  a  half,  and  then  returned  to  Vienna, 
Early  in  1794,  he  again  went  to  London  under  a 
similar  engagement,  and  succeeded  even  more  brill- 
iantly in  all  respects.  He  earned  fame  and  money, 
and  returned  home  in  1795,  comfortably  independ- 
ent. He  still  retained  the  title  of  conductor  to 
Prince  Esterhazy,  and  the  orchestra  was  now  re- 
vived. He  continued  to  compose  for  it  several 
years.  His  reputation  was  greatly  increased  by  his 
oratorios,  "  The  Creation,"  first  given  April  29, 
oratorios.  1798,  and  "The  Seasons,"  composed  the  following 
year.  This  was  the  last  of  his  important  works. 
He  died  May  31,  1809. 
Personal  Haydn  was  a  small,  short  man,  very  dark,  with 
fsti^s^^^"^  dark  gray  eyes.  In  disposition  he  was  cheerful  and 
even  tempered,  and  though  he  was  sensitive,  and 
unhappy  in  his  domestic  affairs,  his  music  gives  no 


F.  J.  HA  YDiV. 


51 


evidence  that  his  mental  equanimity  was  ever  great- 
ly disturbed.  He  was  very  devout,  very  diligent  in 
his  work,  and  commanded  universal  respect.  He 
composed  very  carefully  and  deliberately,  attach- 
ing the  utmost  importance  to  the  working  out 
of  his  themes,  aiming  always  to  develop  each  idea 
naturally,  evolving  from  it,  as  from  a  germ,  a  work 
whose  prime  characteristic  should  be  organic  unity. 
He  was  indeed  precise  and  careful,  but  he  was  no 
pedantic  follower  of  rules.  Whatever  sounded  well 
or  answered  the  ends  he  had  in  view,  he  was  con- 
tent to  write  down,  regardless  of  grammatical  rules 
as  laid  down  by  the  theorists  of  his  time.  He  was  a 
genuine  creator,  and  his  fund  of  invention  seemed 
inexhaustible.  "  The  Creation,"  the  child  of  his  old 
age,  equals  in  freshness  of  melodic  invention  any 
work  of  his  youth  or  prime,  and  retains  its  charm 
to  this  day. 

As  might  be  expected  from  his  position  as  leader 
of  an  orchestra,  and  composer  for  this  and  for  con- 
certs of  chamber  music,  it  is  in  the  two  departments 
of  the  symphony  and  the  string  quartet,  that  his 
originality  exerted  the  strongest  and  most  far-reach- 
ing influence.  His  numerous  compositions  in  these 
fields  were  so  superior  in  form  and  style  to  any- 
thing that  preceded  them,  that  they  drove  them  all 
into  oblivion,  became  models  for  succeeding  com- 
posers, and  gained  for  Haydn  the  rightful  title  of 
"the  father  of  instrumental  music."  But  in  the 
field  of  pianoforte  music  his  influence  was  hardly 
less  marked.    Accepting  the  form  of  the  sonata  as 


52 


HISTORY  OF  PIANOFORTE  MUSIC. 


established  by  Emanuel  Bach,  he  enlarged  all  its 
movements  and  developed  in  the  "  sonata-form " 
that  clear  and  definite  order  of  period  and  period- 
groups  which  made  it  strictly  and  in  the  fullest 
sense  classical.  In  his  sonata-forms,  there  is  a  "first 
subject,"  often  carried  out  into  a  period-group  of 
considerable  length,  a  transition  period  or  period- 
group,  then  a  "  second  subject,"  equally  extensive,  a 
transition  and  a  conclusion.  The  second  division 
begins  with  an  elaboration  of  the  ideas  of  the  first 
division,  followed  by  a  repetition  of  that  division  ex- 
actly on  the  plan  described  in  the  preceding  chapter 
on  Form.  The  student  may  examine  them  for  him- 
self in  the  very  cheap  but  excellent  complete  edition 
of  his  sonatas  published  by  C.  F.  Peters,  in  Leipzig; 
or  the  selection  of  ten  celebrated  sonatas,  published 
by  the  same  house,  may  serve  as  characteristic  spec- 
imens of  his  form  and  style. 

Wolfgang  Amadeus  Mozart,  born  at  Salzburg, 
January  27,  1756,  was  the  son  of  Leopold  Mozart,  an 
intelligent,  well-educated  and  every  way  superior 
musician,  in  the  service  of  the  Archbishop  of  Salz- 
burg. He  was  extremely  precocious,  began  to  man- 
ifest remarkable  love  for  music  when  only  three 
years  old,  soon  learned  to  play  the  harpsichord  and 
the  violin,  and  even  began  to  compose.  He  had 
the  most  delicate  ear,  was  extremely  quick  and  in- 
telligent, learned  by  intuition  everything  pertaining 
to  music,  and  in  short,  showed  the  most  un- 
mistakable evidences  of  possessing  the  innate  gift 
of  genius.    Withal  he  was  amiable  in  disposition, 


W.  A.  MOZART. 


53 


perfectly  teachable,  tenderly  attached  to  his  family  Chap^iv. 
and  to  all  who  were  kind  to  him,  and  so  profited  by 
all  the  instruction  he  received.  His  sister,  Maria 
Anna,  two  years  older  than  he,  was  also  very  tal- 
ented, so  much  so  that  their  father  thought  it  worth 
while  to  make  concert  tours  with  the  two  children  Concert 

tours. 

to  exhibit  their  remarkable  gifts  to  the  various  no- 
blemen, whose  patronage,  in  those  days,  was  the 
only  support  of  artists. 

The  first  of  these  tours  was  undertaken  when 
Wolfgang  was  only  six  years  of  age.  They  went  to 
Munich,  and  afterwards  to  Vienna,  where  Wolf- 
gang's genius  excited  the  liveliest  interest  and  ad- 
miration in  the  Emperor  and  in  all  his  court.  The  His 
Empress  petted  him,  and  with  the  frankness  of  a  IZ^d""^' 
warm-hearted  child,  wholly  ignorant  of  distinctions  i/rlyaPty. 
of  rank,  and  of  the  restraints  of  court  etiquette,  he 
jumped  up  into  her  lap,  threw  his  arms  around  her 
neck  and  kissed  her,  doubtless  to  the  great  amuse- 
ment of  the  courtiers.  The  next  year  they  went  to 
Paris,  where  four  of  his  sonatas  for  pianoforte  and 
violin  were  published,  and  afterward  to  London, 
where  he  was  received  with  the  greatest  enthusiasm 
by  the  king,  the  royal  family,  the  nobility,  the  musi- 
cians, and  the  public.  His  powers  of  improvisation 
excited  the  greatest  astonishment  and  admiration. 
Musicians  delighted  to  put  him  to  the  severest  tests, 
from  which  he  invariably  came  off  triumphant.  In 
1765  they  started  for  home,  giving  concerts  by  the 
way  in  Holland,  Paris,  Switzerland,  and  various 
German  cities. 


54 


HISTORY  OF  PIANOFORTE  MUSIC. 


After  these  tours,  he  continued  diligently  to 
study  and  compose  at  Salzburg,  under  his  father's 
direction.  He  went  also  to  Vienna,  and  in 
1769  his  father  began  with  him  a  tour  of  the  Italian 
cities,  both  to  enlarge  his  musical  experience,  and 
to  extend  his  reputation.  The  tour  was  every  way 
successful.  The  boy  learned  much,  and  his  genius 
was  everywhere  admired  and  respected.  At  Bo- 
logna he  met  the  celebrated  Padre  Martini,  who 
gave  him  lessons  in  fugue  and  strict  counterpoint. 
He  composed  a  good  deal  in  Italy,  among  other 
things,  an  opera,  and  several  symphonies. 

After  their  return  to  Salzburg,  in  177 1,  study  and 
composition  went  on  with  even  greater  vigor.  The 
boy's  invention  was  exhaustless.  Melodies  rose  in 
his  imagination  like  water  in  a  boiling  spring,  and  in 
all  that  pertained  to  the  development  and  technical 
treatment  of  his  ideas,  there  seemed  no  limit  to  his 
capabilities.  He  wrote  church  music,  chamber 
music,  symphonies,  harpsichord  music,  operas,  all 
with  no  apparent  effort,  and  with  the  utmost  rapidity. 
He  was  indeed  an  artist  ''by  the  grace  of  God." 
These  early  compositions  were,  indeed,  of  little  per- 
manent value,  but  his  powers  were  maturing  by  ex- 
ercise, and  he  was  gathering  materials  and  gaining 
in  experience  daily.  In  spite  of  the  universal  ad- 
miration of  his  gifts  and  attainments,  his  father 
found  it  impossible  to  obtain  for  him  a  court  ap- 
pointment. He  was,  indeed,  vice-conductor  to  the 
Archbishop  of  Salzburg,  but  without  a  salary,  and 
his  relations  to  his  patron  were  by  no  means  pleas- 


W.  A.  MOZART. 


55 


ant.  So,  at  the  age  of  twenty-one,  he  severed  this 
connection,  and  started  with  his  mother  for  Paris. 
But  there  the  time  and  circumstances  proved  un- 
favorable, and  soon  his  mother  died  there. 

He  returned  to  Salzburg,  and  accepted  the  place 
of  organist  and  concert-meister  to  the  court  and  ca- 
thedral. But  he  found  it  impossible  to  live  with  the 
Archbishop.  The  troubles  culminated  in  Vienna, 
whither  Mozart  had  been  summoned  in  March, 
1781,  his  master  being  there  on  a  visit.  This  dig- 
nified prelate  was  very  fond  of  lording  it  over  those 
in  his  service.  He  made  his  court  composer  eat 
with  the  servants,  addressed  him  in  terms  of  vile 
abuse,  and  finally,  being  displeased  with  him,  for  no 
discoverable  reason,  ordered  him  to  leave  the  house. 
Mozart  left,  and  never  had  anything  to  do  with  him 
afterward.  To  the  honor  of  the  Emperor,  and  of 
the  Viennese  nobility,  be  it  said  that  they  all  hated 
this  detestable  despiser  of  genius,  and  treated  him 
with  contempt. 

On  the  1 6th  of  August,  1782,  Mozart  married 
Constanze  Weber,  third  daughter  of  Fridolin  Weber, 
a  prompter  and  copyist,  whose  acquaintance  Wolf- 
gang had  made  sometime  before,  in  Mannheim,  but 
who  was  now  living  in  Vienna.  The  marriage  was 
a  happy  one,  but  Constanze  was  a  poor  manager, 
and  Mozart  was  careless  in  money  matters,  so  that 
they  were  constantly  in  financial  embarrassment 
from  their  marriage  until  Mozart's  death.  The  Em- 
peror and  the  nobility  might  very  easily  have  made 
the  life  of  the  great  composer  an  easy  one,  as  re- 


Chap.  IV. 


Organist 
to  the 
A  rchbisho^ 
of  Salz- 
burg. 


His 

marriage. 


Pecuniary 
difficulties. 


56 


HISTORY  OF  PIANOFORTE  MUSIC. 


gards  money  matters.  Why  this  was  not  done  is  a 
mystery,  since  they  seemed  to  appreciate  the  fact 
that  his  was  a  genius  such  as  is  sent  into  the  world 
but  seldom,  but  certain  it  is  that  he  was  unable  to 
obtain  a  conductor's  appointment,  or  any  other 
lucrative  position.  Men  greatly  his  inferior  were 
preferred  to  him,  and  he  earned  a  precarious  liveli- 
hood by  giving  lessons,  playing  at  concerts,  and  the 
sale  of  his  compositions. 

Among  the  most  important  of  his  works  were  his 
operas,  of  which  he  wrote  many  for  Vienna,  Prague, 
and  other  cities.  The  greatest  of  these  are  "  Don 
Juan,"  "Figaro's  Wedding,"  and  "The  Magic 
Flute  ;"  next  to  these,  "  The  Abduction  from  the 
Seraglio,"  "Idomeneus,"  "Titus"  and  "Cosi  fan 
tutte."  He  also  wrote  many  symphonies,  which 
were  an  advance  on  Haydn's  in  the  extent  of  their 
development,  and  in  the  greater  fullness  and  rich- 
ness of  their  instrumentation.  His  chamber  music 
also  surpassed  all  that  had  been  written  by  his  pre- 
decessors. He  wrote  with  the  greatest  ease  and 
produced  immense  quantities  of  music,  but  the  con- 
stant strain,  added  to  his  anxieties  about  money 
matters  and  to  the  drain  on  his  vitality  made  by  the 
constant  excitements  of  his  life,  sapped  his  strength. 
He  died  December  5,  1791,  poor  and  in  debt,  and 
was  buried  in  the  common  pauper's  grave,  in  the 
churchyard  of  St.  Mary.  Thus  was  sacrificed  to 
the  niggardliness  of  titled  fools  a  man  worth  more 
to  the  world  than  whole  countries  full  of  emperors, 
counts  and  dukes. 


W.  A.  MOZART. 


57 


In  figure,  Mozart  was  short  and  small  ;  he  had  a 
prominent  nose,  and  was  not  remarkable  for  being 
either  good  looking  or  the  reverse.  In  disposition 
he  was  amiable  and  kind,  very  vivacious  and 
fond  of  society,  and  very  fond  of  his  friends, 
who  loved  him  in  return.  Between  him  and 
Haydn  there  existed  a  warm  friendship.  Mozart 
always  acknowledged  his  obligations  to  his  older 
fellow-composer,  and  spoke  of  his  works  with 
great  admiration  and  respect.  On  his  part,  Haydn 
cordially  recognized  Mozart's  genius.  In  1785,  on 
hearing  some  of  Mozart's  quartets,  he  said  to 
Leopold  Mozart,  "  I  declare  to  you  before  God,  as  a 
man  of  honor,  that  your  son  is  the  greatest  com- 
poser that  I  know,  either  personally  or  by  reputa- 
tion; he  has  taste,  and  beyond  that  the  most  con- 
summate knowledge  of  the  art  of  composition." 

As  a  composer,  Mozart  was  remarkable,  first  of 
all  for  spontaneity  and  fertility  of  invention,  and 
next,  perhaps,  for  sensuous  beauty  of  melody  and 
harmony  and  warmth  of  color  in  modulation  and 
instrumentation.  In  his  best  operas  he  also  achieved 
much  in  the  way  of  truthful  dramatic  characteriza- 
tion. In  his  pianoforte  sonatas  and  concertos, 
which  more  immediately  concern  us  in  this  history, 
he  made  decided  advances  on  Haydn  in  the  develop- 
ment of  Form.  His  greatest  compositions  in  this 
kind  were  laid  out  on  a  broader  scale  than  any  of 
Haydn's  ;  they  were  perfect  in  Unity,  and  admirable 
in  Symmetry  and  Proportion.  They  were  not  re- 
markable for  strong  contrasts,  but  contrast  is  not  of 


58 


HISTORY  OF  PIANOFORTE  MUSIC. 


the  essential  nature  of  the  classical.  Variety  there 
was,  an  inexhaustible  freshness  of  ideas  and  of  treat- 
ment, and  repose,  which  is  of  the  very  essence  of 
the  strictly  classical,  of  which  he  and  Haydn  were 
the  foremost  representatives.  With  Mozart,  the 
Sonata,  considered  as  an  Art-Form,  reached  its  cul- 
mination. He  had  developed  it  to  its  logical  limits, 
and  thenceforth  little  or  no  advance  was  to  be  made 
upon  his  work,  so  far  as  form  was  concerned.  The 
great  composers  who  immediately  succeeded  him 
adopted  his  forms  at  first.  They  afterward  struck 
out  new  paths  for  themselves,  but  the  new  develop- 
ment was  not  in  the  direction  of  elaborate  forms, 
but  of  a  new  content,  and  of  the  adaptation  of 
forms  to  the  embodiment  of  this  content.  This  will 
be  treated  of  in  the  next  epoch. 

The  student  is  advised  to  compare  the  forms  of 
the  pianoforte  works  of  Emanuel  Bach,  Haydn  and 
Mozart,  for  himself.  The  complete  sonatas  and 
concertos  of  Mozart  may  be  obtained  very  cheaply 
in  the  Peters'  edition. 


CHAPTER  V. 


The  Epoch  of  the  Predominance  of  Content  in  the 
Sonata. 

THE  CONTENT  OF  MUSIC. 


The  content  of  a  musical  composition  is  what  is 
contained  in  it; — the  ideas  and  feelings  which  find 
expression  through  it,  and  the  ideals  which  are  em- 
bodied in  it. 

I.  What  ideas,  then,  may  be  expressed  in  the 
forms  of  music?  2.  What  feelings,  if  any?  3. 
What  ideals  may  be  embodied  in  it  ? 

I.  No  images  can  be  expressed  or  conveyed  by 
combinations  or  successions  of  tones.  No  events 
can  be  described  in  this  way,  no  situations  indicated, 
except  indirectly  and  with  difficulty.  Nor  can  any 
abstract  ideas  be  expressed.  Certain  sounds  do  in- 
deed suggest  certain  ideas  and  images,  and  may  be 
employed  in  music  for  this  purpose.  Thus  the 
barking  of  a  dog  raises  the  idea  of  the  animal,  be- 
cause we  have  always  associated  the  sound  with 
dogs,  but  the  idea  of  a  dog  given  by  this  sound 
alone  is  extremely  incomplete,  so  that  any  one  con- 
fined to  a  mere  imitation  of  barking  in  an  attempt 
to  express  and  convey  his  idea  of  any  particular 
dog,  would  be  very  unsuccessful.    Given  other  par- 


6o 


HISTORY  OF  PIAA^OFORTE  MUSIC. 


Chap.  V. 


Suggestions 
of  ideas  by 
music  must 
always  be 
incidental. 


ticulars,  and  the  mere  suggestion  by  this  sound 
would  be  sufficient  to  raise  the  complete  idea. 

There  are  instances  of  this  kind  in  music.  Thus, 
Mendelssohn  in  his  music  to  Shakespeare's  Midsum- 
mer Night's  Dream,  introduces  in  the  midst  of 
music  appropriate  to  a  love  scene,  an  imitation  of 
the  braying  of  a  donkey,  and  this  irresistibly  sug- 
gests at  once  the  scene  with  Bottom  and  Titania, 
which  Mendelssohn  had  in  mind.  But  if  we  did 
not  know  beforehand  that  the  composer's  music  re- 
ferred to  this  particular  play,  the  mere  introduction 
of  a  bray  would  convey  no  such  idea. 

We  must  discard  then,  at  the  outset,  any  notion 
that  music  can  be  used  as  words  are,  or  as  the  pic- 
torial arts  are,  for  the  expression  and  conveyance  of 
the  images  impressed  on  our  minds  by  outward  ob- 
jects. Any  use  of  music  for  such  a  purpose  must 
be  incidental  and  secondary  to  its  main  object. 
There  has  been  a  great  deal  of  nonsense  written 
about  "the  meaning  of  music,"  by  writers  who 
wished  to  connect  some  definite  scene  or  event  with 
particular  pieces,  importing  into  them  a  significance 
wholly  foreign  to  the  composer's  intention.  * 

All  talk  about  'describing"  this  or  that  event  or 
situation  in  tones  indicates  confusion  of  thought. 
Properly  speaking,  no  music  ever  '^escribed  "  or 
depicted  "  anything.  The  expressions  used,  how- 
ever, are  attempts  to  convey  a  real  truth,  the  rela- 
tions of  which  are  apparently  not  clear  in  the  minds 
of  the  writers  who  use  them.  More  of  this  here- 
after. 


THE  CONTENT  OF  MUSIC. 


6i 


But  are  there,  then,  no  ideas  in  music  ?  Certainly 
there  are;  but  only  musical  ideas,  except,  as  in  the 
above  illustrations,  when  other  ideas  are  indirectly 
suggested. 

What,  then,  is  a  musical  idea  ?  A  musical  idea  is 
any  succession  or  combination  of  musical  sounds, 
the  separate  components  of  which  have  a  definite, 
intelligible  relation  to  one  another.  "  Motives,"  as 
defined  in  Chapter  III,  are  musical  ideas.  The  de- 
velopment, arrangement  and  combination  of  these 
motives,  so  as  to  evolve  from  them  complex  wholes, 
satisfactory  to  the  intellect,  constitutes  inusical 
thought. 

The  proper  apprehension  of  the  completed  pro- 
duct of  the  composer's  thought,  as  coherent,  logical 
musical  discourse,  is  also  to  be  called  musical 
thinking.  A  fugue,  sonata  or  symphony,  studied 
scientifically,  in  all  the  relations  of  the  separate  parts 
to  one  another  and  to  the  whole,  demands  for  its 
proper  comprehension  intellectual  powers  and  train- 
ing. Considered  from  the  side  of  construction,  of 
technical  knowledge  and  technical  treatment  of 
sounds,  music  is  purely  a  product  of  intellect  and 
the  composition  of  it  is  a  purely  intellectual  process. 

But  no  composer  of  genius  impresses  himself  on 
the  world  merely  or  mainly  as  an  intellectual  athlete, 
or  as  a  skillful  composer.  His  skill  is  subordinate, 
— is  only  a  means  to  an  end.  That  end  is  the  em- 
bodiment of  some  ideal.  Mere  technical  skill,  dex- 
terity in  the  combination  and  arrangement  of 
sounds  may  be  acquired  by  diligent  study.    It  may 


62 


HISTORY  OF  PIANOFORTE  MUSIC. 


be  possessed  as  an  attainment  by  scholars  and 
pedants  without  a  spark  of  creative  power.  But  the 
real  creative  artist  uses  the  materials  accumulated 
by  study,  and  the  facility  acquired  by  practice,  as  so 
much  food  for  his  imagination;  as  means  for  the 
embodiment  of  ideal  conceptions.  First  and  fore- 
most, that  which  occupies  the  attention  of  the  artist 
is  the  embodiment  of  ideals  of  Beauty.  It  is  not 
enough  that  his  production  be  skillfully  constructed; 
it  must  be  beautiful  in  order  to  satisfy  his  artistic 
sense  and  make  for  itself  a  permanent  place  in  the 
world's  estimation. 

Beauty  in  music  is  of  three  kinds:  Sensuous 
Beauty  of  Tone,  Symmetrical  Beauty  of  Form,  and 
the  Beauty  which  comes  of  the  adequate  expression 
of  a  worthy  emotional  content.  Of  these  three 
kinds  of  Beauty,  any  one  may  predominate,  almost 
to  the  exclusion  of  the  other  two;  or  two  of  them 
may  be  prominently  present,  the  other  being  neg- 
lected; or  all  three  may  unite  to  form  a  well- 
rounded  and  satisfactory  whole. 

Of  these  three  kinds,  compositions  which  embody 
simply  an  ideal  of  the  Pleasing  in  Sensation,  are 
lowest  in  the  scale,  because  the  production  of 
them  involves  the  minimum  of  intellectual  effort  and 
of  technical  attainment,  and  also  because  the  emo- 
tional content  is  inferior.  Compositions  which  com- 
bine with  this  the  embodiment  of  an  ideal  of  Formal 
Beauty  stand  higher,  because  Form  is  the  result  of 
high  intellectual  processes. 

Before  passing  to  the  consideration  of  music  as 


THE  CONTENT  OF  MUSIC. 


63 


the  expression  of  ideal  emotional  experiences,  it  is 
extremely  important  to  make  sure  that  there  is  no 
confusion  in  the  minds  of  even  young  readers,  un- 
acquainted with  psychology,  as  to  the  relation  of 
feeling  to  the  other  mental  operations  ;  and  also 
that  the  distinctions  between  the  different  kinds  of 
feelings  are  clearly  understood.  The  discussion  of 
this  subject,  even  in  the  briefest  possible  way,  in- 
volves a  long  digression,  for  which,  it  is  hoped,  am- 
ple excuse  will  be  found  in  the  importance  of  the 
the  subject,  the  widespread  ignorance  of  it,  and  the 
difficulty  of  referring  students  to  any  treatise  on  it 
which  shall  be  at  once  brief,  clear  and  pointed.  No 
one  can  really  understand  music,  who  can  not  dis- 
criminate between  its  emotional  content  and  the 
other  elements  which  enter  into  it.  It  is  hoped, 
therefore,  that  sufficient  apology  has  already  been 
offered  for  the  interpolation  of  a  short  essay  on  the 
emotions  here. 

There  are  three,  and  only  three  kinds  of  activity 
possible  to  the  human  mind.  We  know,  we  feel,  we 
choose.  There  are  three  general  faculties  corre- 
sponding to  these  mental  activities,  viz.:  the  In- 
tellect, the  Sensibility  and  the  Will. 

Under  the  intellect  are  included  all  perceptions. 
Memory,  Imagination,  logical  Thinking,  Intuition, 
in  short  all  cognition  or  knowing.  The  will  is  the 
power  of  choosing.  Under  the  sensibility  are  in- 
cluded all  those  phenomena  of  mind  which  we  com- 
monly speak  of  as  Feeling  or  Emotions,  these  terms 
being  here  used  as  synonymous,  from  the  simplest 


64 


HISTORY  OF  PIANOFORTE  MUSIC. 


experiences  of  pleasure  and  pain  to  the  warmest 
affections,  the  strongest  desires  and  the  most  violent 
passions. 

Feelings  are  either  (i)  simple,  or  (2)  complex. 

I.  The  simple  emotions  are  pure  feelings  of  pleas- 
ure or  pain.  They  are  in  all  cases  effects,  produced 
upon  the  mind  by  a  great  variety  of  causes.  The  at- 
tempt to  classify  and  enumerate  these  causes  would 
lead  us  too  far.  It  is  sufficient  to  note  that  the 
mind  is  always  affected  by  some  cause  or  otner 
which  produces  either  pleasure  or  pain,  although 
our  emotions  are  sometimes  so  lacking  in  intensity 
that  the  sensibility  seems  to  be  almost  neutral  ; — the 
line  of  transition  from  one  state  to  the  other  is 
nearly  reached,  and  feeling  is  reduced  to  a  mini- 
mum for  the  time  being.  This  is  especially  true 
when  there  is  no  cause  at  work  which  powerfully 
affects  the  feelings,  and  when  the  mind  is  taken  up 
with  intellectual  operations.  A  man  absorbed  in  solv- 
ing a  mathematical  problem,  or  in  composing  a  fugue 
or  sonata,  for  example,  may  be  so  occupied  with  his 
purely  intellectual  activity  that  he  is  almost  or  quite 
unconscious  of  feeling  at  all.  Nevertheless,  there 
is  feeling  present.  For  if  his  intellectual  energy  is  put 
forth  without  impediment,  the  exercise  of  his  in- 
tellectual powers  is  pleasurable  ;  if  he  meets  with 
unexpected  obstacles  or  interruptions,  a  painful 
effect  is  produced.  The  pain  in  the  one  case  or  the 
pleasure  in  the  other  may  be  of  considerable  in- 
tensity, or  it  may  be  so  slight  as  not  to  obtrude  it- 
self on  the  attention,  and  the  state  of  feeling,  or 


THE  CONTENT  OF  MUSIC. 


65 


mood,  besides  being  simple,  may  be  said  to  be  indefi- 
nite or  vague. 

The  simple  emotions  of  pleasure  and  pain  often 
depend  on  bodily  conditions  as  causes,  without  our 
being  conscious  of  what  these  causes  are.  Most 
people  are  subject  to  elations  and  depressions  of 
mood,  dependent  on  the  condition  of  the  nervous 
system.  The  nerves  may  be  affected  by  the 
weather,  by  the  condition  of  the  digestive  apparatus, 
or  by  other  bodily  causes.  Besides  this  we  receive 
pleasure  and  pain  from  our  social  relations,  from 
success  or  failure  in  our  business,  from  the  gratifica- 
tions or  thwarting  of  desire,  etc.,  etc. 

II.  Complex  feelings  are  either  (i)  Desires  or  (2) 
Affections.  (Passions  are  simply  desires  in  their  ex- 
treme form.)  I.  When  we  experience  pleasure  in 
view  of  some  object  as  an  exciting  cause,  we  com- 
monly desire  that  object  in  its  absence  ;  or  if  any  ob- 
ject gives  us  pain,  we  desire  its  absence.  In  both 
cases  there  is  something  more  than  a  simple  emo- 
tion. There  is  superadded  to  the  pure  pleasure  or 
pain  an  outgoing  of  the  mind  toward  the  cause  of 
the  feeling  to  possess  it,  or  to  be  rid  of  it.  The 
mind  is  no  longer  simply  passive,  quiescent;  it 
reaches  out  actively  toward  its  object.  Desire  tends 
to  action.  Thus  we  enjoy  a  beautiful  object,  or  the 
society  of  a  friend.  The  withdrawal  of  these  causes 
a  painful  sense  of  lack  and  deprivation;  we  desire  a 
renewal  of  the  pleasure  before  experienced,  and 
long  for  the  presence  of  the  friend  or  the  beautiful 
object  as  a  condition  of  the  wished-for  gratification. 


66 


HISTORY  OF  PIANOFORTE  MUSIC. 


In  the  case  of  a  friend,  we  desire  not  only  his  pres- 
ence but  his  society,  interchange  of  thought  and 
feeUng  ;  we  desire  also  that  our  thoughts,  feelings 
and  actions  may  meet  the  approval  of  those  we  es- 
teem. In  the  case  of  a  beautiful  object,  or  any  ob- 
ject which  gives  us  pleasure,  we  desire  to  possess  it, 
to  have  it  within  our  control;  or  if  that  be  impossi- 
ble, as  in  the  case  of  a  landscape,  for  instance,  we 
desire  to  appropriate  it,  to  make  it  our  own  so  far 
as  the  nature  of  the  case  admits.  Or,  we  are  re- 
pelled by  something  ugly  or  horrible,  or  displeased 
by  behavior  which  we  disapprove  ;  we  desire  to  sep- 
arate ourselves  from  the  disagreeable  person  or  ob- 
ject, and  this  feeling  tends  to  active  effort  on  our 
part  to  bring  about  this  separation. 

2.  Affections  involve  still  another  form  of  feeling. 
We  experience  pleasure  or  pain  ;  we  recognize  some 
person  or  sentient  being  as  the  cause  of  this  simple 
emotion  ;  there  is  a  movement  of  feeling  to  confer 
good  or  ill  upon  the  cause.  With  this  is  also  com- 
monly associated  the  desire  of  possession.  The 
society  of  a  friend  delights  us.  We  not  only  desire 
the  presence,  society  and  approbation  of  our  friend, 
but  we  desire  also  that  he  should  experience  pleas- 
ure. This  awakens  in  us  the  impulse  to  please  him, 
to  act  for  his  good.  Or  we  are  displeased  by  the 
behavior  of  an  evil-disposed  person.  We  not  only 
desire  the  absence  of  so  obnoxious  a  cause  of  pain- 
ful emotion,  but  we  are  naturally  impelled  to  inflict 
pain  on  the  offender. 

The  important  consideration  for  us  in  this  dis- 


THE  CONTENT  OF  MUSIC. 


67 


cussion,  as  regards  the  content  of  music,  is,  that  in  Chap^v. 
the  simple  emotions  the  mind  is  passive  and  qui- 
escent; in  the  complex  experiences  of  the  desires 
and  affections  there  is  a  strong  tendency  to  action. 
These  are  the  impulses  which  furnish  motive  power 
to  the  will,  and  are  the  springs  of  conduct  and  of 
character. 

The  significance  of  these  distinctions  will  appear  Relation  0/ 

11  these 

more  and  more  clearly  as  we  attempt  to  study  the  distinctions 

,         .  .  .  .  .     .      to  our 

works  of  various  composers,  and  to  mterpret  their  under- 
mental  states  from  their  productions.  We  shall  find  the  content 
that  some  of  these  compositions  give  evidences  that  "-^ 
their  authors  were  occupied  primarily  with  the  in- 
tellectual side  of  their  work, — with  plans  of  con- 
struction. In  these  cases  emotional  experience  was 
reduced  to  a  simple  mood,  so  vague  that  close  scrut- 
iny would  be  required  to  decide  whether  it  was 
pleasurable  or  painful.  We  shall  find  other  cases  in 
which  the  completed  products  show  that  the  com- 
|X)ser  had  thoroughly  mastered  his  material,  con- 
structed his  forms  with  unimpeded  freedom  of  en- 
ergy and  experienced  keen  pleasure  in  the  spontane- 
ous activity  of  production.  This  pleasure  became 
the  emotional  content  of  the  music  without  the  de- 
liberate intention  and  perhaps  without  the  conscious- 
ness of  the  composer.  In  other  cases,  there  was 
added  to  this  a  higher  faculty  in  the  composer 
whereby  he  conceived  an  Ideal  of  Beauty,  which  he 
sought  to  embody  in  his  composition.  In  these 
cases  there  was  infused  into  the  work  the  added  de- 
light arising  from  the  contemplation  of  the  beauti- 


68 


HISTORY  OF  PIANOFORTE  MUSIC. 


ful  conception,  and  from  the  consciousness  of  suc- 
cess in  the  attempt  to  embody  it. 

In  all  these  cases  the  emotions  experienced 
by  the  composer  were  simple,  except  in  so 
far  as  the  element  of  desire  to  accomplish  a  certain 
result  complicated  his  emotional  state.  When  this 
desire  was  constantly  in  process  of  fulfillment  this 
element  was  reduced  to  the  smallest  possible  quan- 
tity, and  the  feeling  became  as  nearly  simple  as  pos- 
sible. 

But  we  shall  find  composers  in  whose  mental 
states  the  complex  feelings  predominated  ;  whose 
minds  are  no  longer  occupied  mainly  with  intellect- 
ual processes,  but  in  whom  urgent  desires,  longings 
and  yearnings,  or  fierce  passions  constantly  force 
themselves  upon  consciousness,  make  their  impulses 
felt  in  the  whole  mental  activity,  and  leave  unmis- 
takable traces  on  the  completed  product.  We  shall 
find  others  who  consciously  sought  to  express  in 
tones  real  or  imagined  emotional  experiences  ;  who 
deliberately  set  themselves  the  task  of  finding  suc- 
cessions and  combinations  of  tones  which  should 
embody  clearly  conceived  emotional  states, — sought 
to  reproduce  in  tones  the  most  subtle  as  well  as  the 
most  powerful  impressions  made  upon  their  own 
sensibility,  and  to  convey  these  impressions  to 
others.  Finally,  we  shall  find  composers  who 
sought  to  reproduce  the  emotional  impressions  made 
by  a  series  of  events,  with  such  vividness,  that  a 
single  clue  should  sufllice  to  suggest  the  whole  story 
to  those  already  acquainted  with  it. 


THE  CONTENT  OF  MUSIC. 


69 


Resuming  now  our  discussion  of  the  content  of 
music,  let  us  inquire:  How  are  these  feelings  re- 
vealed through  musical  composition  ?  What  is  the 
relation  of  music  to  emotion  ?  This  is  now  for  us 
the  inquiry  of  most  immediate  importance. 

Every  one  who  will  give  the  matter  a  little  atten- 
tion will  discover  that  sounds,  articulate  and  inar- 
ticulate, are  among  the  most  efficient  means  of  ex- 
pressing and  conveying  feelings.  Animals  express 
pleasure  and  pain  by  means  of  inarticulate  sounds; 
so  do  infants.  Adults  do  the  same,  and  modify 
their  expressions  of  ideas  in  language  by  the  tones 
in  which  their  words  are  uttered.  These  tones  ex- 
press and  convey  the  emotional  state  of  the  speak- 
ers. We  all  learn  in  early  childhood  to  associate 
certain  modulations  of  the  voices  of  those  around 
us  with  certain  feelings  in  their  minds,  so  that  we 
could  not  possibly  be  convinced  that  we  do  not  in- 
terpret these  sounds  correctly.  So  certain  are  we  of 
our  understanding  of  them,  that  no  positiveness  of  as- 
sertion by  any  one  as  to  the  state  of  his  feelings 
could  convince  us  that  he  spoke  truly,  if  his  tone  of 
voice  belied  his  assertion.  Thus  anger,  hatred,  joy, 
love,  jealousy,  eager  expectation,  desire,  passionate 
remorse,  gentle  regret,  sadness  or  melancholy  are 
conveyed  unmistakably  by  sounds,  whether  con- 
nected with  words  or  not.  Let  it  be  noticed  that 
words,  the  sig?is  of  ideas,  only  excite  feelings  indi- 
rectly, by  conveying  ideas,  which  raise  the  feelings  ; 
while  sounds  convey  these  feelings  directly  and  im- 
mediately.   It  is  by  the  natural  extension  and  carry- 


70 


HISTORY  OF  PIANOFORTE  MUSIC. 


"11-  ■    ing  out  of  this  process,  that  the  sounds  produced  by- 
instruments  have  come  to  be  associated  with  the 
same  feeHngs  which  the  voice  expresses  by  tones  in 
speech  and  in  song,  so  that  music  has  come  to  be  a 
fa^giage     highly  complcx  and  elaborate  language  of  emotion  — 
of  feeling.    ^  perfect  medium  for  the  expression  of  feehng. 

This  is  the  prime  characteristic  of  music.  All 
the  fine  arts  aim  to  express  and  excite  feehng.  The 
painter  deals  in  pictures  of  stirring  or  tender  or 
tragic  scenes  ;  the  poet  and  the  novelist  describe 
and  narrate  situations  and  events  which  excite  the 
strongest  and  deepest  feelings.  But,  as  already 
pointed  out,  the  office  of  words  is  to  express  di- 
rectly^ ideas;  the  painter  gives  us  still  more  clearly 
ideas  and  images.  Feelings  are  indeed  excited  by 
the  ideas,  but  the  process  by  which  the  artist  reaches 
other  minds  is  a  duplex  one.  The  musician  reaches 
the  sensibility  of  his  hearers  at  once,  and  directly, 
without  the  intervention  of  images.  This  is  the 
peculiarity  of  music  among  the  fine  arts,  that  it  ex- 
presses the  life  of  emotion  most  directly,  and  most 
subtly  and  powerfully.  That  music  is  greatest  and 
noblest  which  most  perfectly  answers  this,  its  pecu- 
liar end  and  aim  ;  in  which  its  peculiar  capacity  is 
most  fully  recognized  and  developed. 

That  composer  is  greatest  who  most  clearly  dis- 
whoisthe    cerns  the  true  ends  and  capabilities  of  his  art;  who 
'^andiritic?  ^^"^^      ^^^^  worthy  cxprcssiou  to  the  noblest  emo- 
tional experience.    He  is  the  best  connoisseur  who 
best  appreciates  the  capabilities   of   music   as  a 
language  of  emotion,  and  is  best  able  to  interpret 


THE  CONTENT  OF  MUSIC. 


71 


the  emotional  state  of  the  composer  by  hearing  his  1  ^hap^v. 
productions. 

It  is,  therefore,  not  only  possible  to  embody  in 
music  ideals  of  emotional  experience,  but  the  em- 
bodiment of  such  ideals  constitutes  its  peculiar  and 
appropriate  function,  and  all  worthy  embodiment  of 
noble  emotions  involves  Beauty,  as  well  as  do  pro- 
ducts which  attain  or  approximate  ideal  perfection 
of  form. 

Those  compositions  then,  are  s^reatest  and  noblest  ^vkat 
which,  usmg  as  materials  tones  pleasmg  by  their  tions  are 

,  ....  .      ,    liighest  in 

sensuous  beauty,  combine  them  into  symmetrical  rank. 
wholes,  satisfactory  to  the  intellect,  and  express 
through  these  combinations  emotional  experiences 
ideally  noble  and  exalted. 

To  sum  up  this  discussion  :  In  a  broad  sense, 
the  ideals  of  the  Pleasing  in  Sensation  and  of  Beauty 
of  Form  which  are  embodied  in  music  may  be  said 
to  be  a  part  of  its  content,  but  that  which  is  most 
appropriately  said  to  be  "  contained  "  in  music,  is 
the  emotional  experience  which  finds  expression 
through  the  form  ;  this  it  is  which  is  innermost,  and 
so  with  peculiar  propriety  is  said  to  be  "  The  Con- 
tent of  Music."  In  this  sense  the  term  "  content  " 
will  always  be  used  in  this  book.  Wherever  it  ap- 
pears, emotional  content  is  meant.* 

♦The  reader's  attention  is  called  to  Herbert  Spencer's  essay  on  "  The 
Origin  and  Function  of  Music"  in  his  "  Illustrations  of  Universal  Prog- 
ress ;  "  to  "  Music  and  Morals,"  by  the  Rev.  H.  R.  Haweis  ;  and  to  "  How 
to  Understand  Music,"  by  W.  S.  B.  Mathews.  These  books  are  invalua- 
ble to  any  student  who  desires  to  obtain  a  clear  comprehension  of  the  re- 
lation of  music  to  emotion. 


CHAPTER  VI. 


LuDwiG  VAN  Beethoven. 


1770-1827. 


THE  COMPOSER  WHO  EMBODIED  IN  THE  SONATA  THE 
NOBLEST  POSSIBLE  CONTENT,  AND  RAISED  IT  TO 
THE  HIGHEST  SIGNIFICANCE  AS  A  WORK  OF  ART. 

LuDWiG  VAN  Beethoven  was  born  in  Bonn,  De- 
cember 16,  1770.  His  father,  Johann,  was  a  tenor 
singer  in  the  employ  of  the  Elector  of  Cologne,  and 
was  by  no  means  a  man  of  high  character,  being 
more  or  less  dissipated  in  his  habits,  and  rough  and 
harsh  in  his  manners.  His  mother  was  daughter  of 
the  chief  cook  at  Ehrenbreitstein,  and  was  an  easy- 
going, kind-hearted  person.  They  were  very  poor, 
having  no  income  except  Johann's  salary  as  singer, 
which  was  only  three  hundred  florins,  about  one 
hundred  and  fifty  dollars  a  year.  When  Ludwig 
was  four  years  old,  his  father  began  to  teach  him 
music,  giving  him  lessons  on  the  violin  and  harpsi- 
chord. He  also  sent  him  to  a  common  school  until 
he  was  thirteen  years  old,  where  he  learned  reading, 
writing,  arithmetic,  and  the  rudiments  of  Latin. 
This  was  all  the  formal  schooling  he  ever  had,  but 
he  afterwards  studied  Latin,  Italian  and  French 
privately  with  one  Zambona,  who  gave  him  help 


72 


L  UD  WIG  VA  N  BEE  THO  VEN. 


73 


and  intellectual  stimulus  in  various  ways.  At  the 
age  of  nine  years  he  was  turned  over  to  another 
music  teacher  named  Pfeiffer,  who  gave  him  efficient 
instruction  for  a  year,  and  at  the  same  time  he  took 
lessons  on  the  organ  of  the  court  organist,  Van  den 
Eeden.  A  year  or  so  later,  Van  den  Eeden  was 
succeeded  by  Neefe,  who  then  became  young  Lud- 
wig's  teacher,  and  proved  of  very  great  service  to 
him.  By  the  time  he  was  eleven  years  old,  Ludwig 
was  able  to  take  his  master's  place  at  the  organ  in 
his  absence,  was  an  excellent  player  and  sight- 
reader,  and  had  played  nearly  all  of  Bach's  "  Well- 
tempered  Clavichord." 

A  little  more  than  a  year  from  this  time,  Neefe 
was  appointed  to  be  director  of  both  sacred  and  sec- 
ular music  in  Bonn,  and  young  Beethoven,  child 
though  he  was,  was  given  charge  of  the  harpsichord 
in  the  theater  orchestra,  as  accompanist  and  con- 
ductor of  the  rehearsals.  This  gave  him  a  great 
deal  of  practice  and  experience,  for  many  good 
operas  were  given,  but  for  more  than  a  year  it 
brought  him  no  pay  ;  at  the  end  of  that  time,  he  be- 
gan to  receive  a  salary  of  one  hundred  and  fifty 
florins  (about  seventy-five  dollars)  per  year.  He 
practiced  composition,  writing  songs  and  pianoforte 
pieces  during  this  time  and  gaining  in  knowledge 
and  experience. 

In  1785  he  took  violin  lessons  of  Franz  Ries,  and 
wrote  three  quartets  for  pianoforte  and  strings,  be- 
sides continuing  his  composition  of  smaller  pieces, 
and  two  years  later  he  paid  a  visit  to  Vienna,  where 


74 


HISTORY  OF  PIANOFORTE  MUSIC. 


he  met  Mozart  and  took  a  few  lessons  from  him. 
This  was,  of  course,  an  important  event  in  the  hfe 
of  the  young  composer.  Mozart  recognized  his  in- 
born genius,  and  predicted  a  great  future  for  him. 

A  Httle  later,  Beethoven  acquired  some  friends, 
who  were  not  only  of  the  greatest  importance  to  his 
development  at  this  critical  age  (he  was  now  seven- 
teen), but  who  remained  devotedly  attached  to  him 
during  his  life.  These  were  the  Von  Breuning 
family  and  Count  Waldstein,  a  young  nobleman, 
eight  years  older  than  Ludwig,  a  cultivated  young 
man,  and  an  intelligent  amateur  musician.  Madame 
Von  Breuning  was  a  refined,  intellectual,  cultivated 
widow,  with  three  sons  and  a  daughter.  She  em- 
ployed young  Ludwig  as  a  music  teacher  in  her  fam- 
ily, and  they  all  became  his  warm  friends.  Up  to 
this  time,  his  associations  had  probably  been,  for  the 
most  part,  with  uncultivated  people.  His  family,  as 
we  have  seen,  was  low  in  station,  and  far  from  ele- 
vated in  character,  so  that  there  was  nothing  in  his 
home  surroundings  to  develop  refinement.  Indeed, 
he  remained  through  life  a  boor  in  his  manners,  and 
was  always  an  uncomfortable  person  to  live  with. 
But,  in  spite  of  this,  he  had  something  in  him  which 
all  the  finest  people  he  met  recognized  as  superior. 
Madame  Von  Breuning  saw,  plainly  enough,  that 
his  faults  were  only  on  the  surface.  She  had  dis- 
cernment enough  to  perceive  that  underneath  the 
uncouth  exterior  and  bearish  behavior  of  this  rude 
and  violent  youth  there  lay  the  essentials  of  a  noble 
character.    She  respected  him   accordingly,  liked 


LUDWIG  VAN  BEETHOVEN. 


75 


him  in  spite  of  his  faults,  admitted  him  to  the  inti- 
mate friendship  of  herself  and  her  family,  encour- 
aged him  in  every  way,  and  introduced  him  to  the 
best  German  and  English  literature.  Here  he 
formed  intellectual  and  literary  tastes  which  were  of 
the  highest  importance  in  his  development,  and 
which  lasted  him  throughout  his  life.  Meanwhile, 
his  father  went  from  bad  to  worse,  and  at  last  fell  so 
low,  that  before  Ludwig  was  nineteen  years  old,  the 
Elector  ordered  a  part  of  his  father's  salary  to  be 
paid  over  to  him,  and  he  thus  became,  in  a  way,  his 
father's  guardian,  and  the  real  head  of  the  family. 

He  remained  at  Bonn,  in  the  service  of  the  Elect- 
or, in  intimate  association  with  the  friends  already 
mentioned,  and  constantly  engaged  in  composition, 
until  November,  1792.  He  was  now  nearly  twenty- 
two  years  old.  Compared  with  Mozart's  produc- 
tions at  that  age,  the  pieces  he  had  composed  were 
few  in  number,  small  and  unimportant ;  but  there 
were  already  to  be  found  in  them  hints  of  his  future 
greatness,  and  suggestions  of  what  was  to  be  the 
distinctive  characteristic  of  his  future  works,  grand- 
eur and  sublimity,  nobility  and  elevation  of  emotion- 
al content,  and  a  profundity  and  force  of  passion 
such  as  had  been  hitherto  unknown  in  the  works  of 
any  composer.  His  acquaintances  were  impressed 
with  his  powers,  and  believed  in  his  genius,  but  this 
impression  was  probably  due  much  more  to  the  fire, 
imagination  and  force  of  his  playing  than  to  any- 
thing in  his  compositions,  for  in  improvisation  he  is 
said  to  have  surpassed  even  Mozart,    We  have  al- 


76 


HISTORY  OF  PIANOFORTE  MUSIC. 


Chap.  VI.  ready  seen  that  his  extemporaneous  playing  made  a 
profound  impression  on  Mozart,  at  Beethoven's  first 
visit  to  Vienna,  and  Haydn  was  similarly  impressed 
when  he  passed  through  Bonn,  on  his  way  to  Lon- 
don, in  December,  1790,  and  again  on  his  return  in 
July,  1792.  The  high  opinion  which  Haydn  formed 
of  Beethoven's  talent,  finally  resulted  in  the  young 
man's  going  to  Vienna  to  study  with  the  old  com- 
poser, in  November,  1792,  and  thenceforth  Beetho- 
ven lived  in  Vienna  until  his  death. 
Lessons  But  his  lessons  with  Haydn  were  a  disappoint- 

Haydn,  mcut.  Haydn  was  very  busy,  and  seems  to  have 
I  neglected  his  pupil  somewhat;  but  besides,  it  soon 
became  clear  that  the  natures  of  the  two  men  were 
so  incompatible  that  the  relation  of  teacher  and 
pupil  could  be  hardly  pleasant  or  profitable  to  either. 
Each  was  original  in  his  way,  but  the  ways  were 
radically  different.  Haydn  himself  had  been  an  in- 
novator, had  opened  up  new  fields,  and  by  break- 
ing new  paths  for  himself  had  aroused  the  antagon- 
ism of  the  pedants  of  his  day.  Beethoven  was  to  be 
equally  a  pioneer  in  unexplored  regions,  and  was 
equally  to  incur  the  hostility  not  only  of  pedantic 
worshippers  of  "  the  letter  which  killeth,"  but  even 
the  disapproval  of  Haydn,  genius  though  he  was. 
Haydn  had  never  hesitated  to  break  the  rules  of 
the  old  contrapuntists  whenever  he  thought  he 
could  produce  a  better  effect  by  so  doing.  He  was 
conscious  of  an  unerring  insight  which  enabled  him 
to  discover  principles  beyond  the  ken  of  the  musical 
grammarians  and  purists  of  his  time.    It  is  probable 


LUDWIG  VAN  BEETHOVEN: 


77 


that,  on  general  principles,  he  would  not  have  dis- 
approved of  any  young  composer's  taking  a  similar 
course,  for  Haydn  was  catholic  in  his  views;  but  he 
was  now  an  old  man  and  seems  to  have  been  inca- 
pable of  comprehending  the  new  spirit  which  im- 
pelled his  vigorous  young  pupil  in  a  direction  wholly 
different  from  that  which  he  himself  had  taken,  and 
almost  as  widely  divergent  from  the  course  of 
Mozart,  whom  Haydn  fully  understood  and  appre- 
ciated. When  Beethoven  submitted  his  first  three 
Trios  to  Haydn's  criticism,  the  old  man  frankly  ad- 
vised him  not  to  publish  the  third.  Beethoven 
knew  this  to  be  the  best  of  the  three,  and  such  an 
opinion  of  course  destroyed  the  young  composer's 
confidence  in  the  critical  judgment  of  his  teacher, 
for  Beethoven's  intuitions  were  sure,  and  he  walked 
no  uncertain  road.  Diverge  from  Haydn  he  must 
and  did;  and  the  necessity  prevented  all  intimacy 
and  cordial  personal  relations,  though  there  was 
never  any  open  quarrel.  Haydn  seems  to  have 
mildly  resented  young  Beethoven's  unteachableness 
and  3ack  of  proper  respect,  while  Ludwig  expressed 
his  disregard  for  Haydn's  opinions  with  a  good  deal 
of  frankness. 

Thus  Haydn's  formal  instruction  of  the  new 
genius  amounted  to  but  very  little.  Beethoven  took 
lessons  of  others,  especially  of  Albrechtsberger,  the 
great  contrapuntist,  but  he  assimilated  their  teach- 
ings in  his  own  way,  formed  ideals  of  his  own  to- 
tally different  from  those  set  before  him  by  his 
teachers,  used  their  lessons  merely  as  hints  for  orig- 


78 


HISTORY  OF  PIANOFORTE  MUSIC. 


inal  discoveries  incomprehensible  to  them,  and  as 
material  for  the  accomplishment  of  results  which, 
though  now  long  since  accepted  as  valid,  awakened 
in  them  only  disapproval  and  contempt. 

"  Have  nothing  to  do  with  him,  "  said  Albrechts- 
berger  to  a  young  student,  "  he  has  learnt  nothing, 
and  will  never  do  anything  in  decent  style."  But 
though  learned  pedants  and  dry  contrapuntists  could 
not  see  the  dawning  greatness  of  a  genius  of  the 
first  rank,  it  was  plain  enough  to  the  noble  and  cul- 
tivated amateurs  whose  patronage  was  at  that  time 
the  only  support  of  artists  in  Vienna.  Beethoven 
at  once  acquired  friends,  admirers  and  patrons 
among  the  Austrian  aristocracy.  The  Prince  Lich- 
nowsky  and  Baron  van  Swieten  at  first,  and  after 
them  nearly  all  the  aristocratic  connoisseurs  of  the 
music-loving  capital,  employed  him  at  private  con- 
certs and  as  a  teacher,  bought  his  compositions,  fur- 
nished him  players  to  try  his  quartets  and  trios  over 
before  they  were  finished,  received  him  into  their 
houses  on  the  most  intimate  terms  and  in  every  way 
showed  their  appreciation  of  his  talents  and  his 
character.  He  was  soon  thrown  on  his  own  re- 
sources by  the  withdrawal  of  his  allowance  from 
Bonn,  and  henceforth  he  supported  himself  by  com- 
positions, concerts  and  teaching.  That  he  should 
have  found  no  difficulty  in  doing  so  is  not  so  sur- 
prising, although  it  is  certainly  creditable  to  his  pat- 
rons that  they  should  have  discerned  in  him  abili- 
ties as  a  musician  which  his  teachers  had  failed  to 
see. 


LUDWIG  VAN  BEETHOVEN. 


79 


What  is  astonishing,  on  the  surface,  is  Beetho- 
ven's personal  relations  to  this  high-born  society.  It 
would  doubtless  have  been  entirely  possible  for  his 
aristocratic  patrons  to  have  shown  their  apprecia- 
tion of  his  musical  gifts  and  attainments,  and  to 
have  supported  him  liberally,  without  admitting  him 
to  social  intercourse,  for  which,  by  his  birth,  his  edu- 
cation, his  personal  habits  and  his  outward  behavior, 
he  was  every  way  unfitted,  and  so  remained  to  the 
last. 

He  was  absent-  minded  and  careless  of  his  dress 
to  the  last  degree ;  he  was  untidy,  not  to  say  un- 
kempt and  dirty  ;  his  table  manners  were  almost  in- 
tolerable ;  he  would  come  into  an  elegant  drawing- 
room  after  walking  in  the  rain  and  shake  the  water 
from  his  hat  over  the  furniture,  oblivious  of  any 
possibility  of  damage ;  he  was  perpetually  breaking 
whatever  he  touched ;  he  was  extremely  sensitive, 
irritable,  violent  and  abusive ;  he  stormed  at  his 
pupils,  young  ladies  of  the  highest  rank  ;  he  insulted 
the  gentlemen  whose  guest  he  was ;  in  short,  his 
outward  behavior  might  not  inaptly  be  summed  up 
in  the  sailor's  verdict  on  the  cannibals  :  Manners 
they  have  none,  and  their  customs  are  disgusting." 

Moreover,  the  social  distance  between  noble  fam- 
ilies and  such  as  his  was  at  that  time  very  great  in- 
deed. Yet  he  was  received  on  terms  of  equality 
into  an  aristocratic  society  as  elegant  and  refined  as 
any  in  Europe  ;  was  admired  and  loved  equally  by 
gentlemen  and  ladies ;  his  faults  were  overlooked ; 
his  boorishness  and  abuse  were  submitted  to,  and 


8o 


HISTORY  OF  PIANOFORTE  MUSIC. 


he  was  treated  in  all  respects  as  if  he  honored  that 
society  by  his  presence.  To  account  for  this  phe- 
nomenon it  is  not  sufficient  lo  point  to  the  evidences 
of  his  musical  genius,  for  neither  Haydn  nor  Mozart, 
though  both  original  geniuses,  and,  moreover,  gen- 
tlemen in  demeanor,  were  treated  with  such  consider- 
ation by  this  same  society.  The  truth  is,  that 
Beethoven's  faults  were  merely  superficial.  They 
were  hard  enough  to  tolerate  in  elegant  society,  or 
indeed  in  any  company,  but  they  did  not  by  any 
means  touch  the  foundation  of  his  character.  His 
neglect  of  dress,  and  of  good  table  habits,  of  the 
minor  moralities  and  the  amenities  of  social  intercourse 
were  due  partly  to  lack  of  early  training,  and  still 
more  to  his  complete  mental  absorption  in  the  ideal 
conceptions  which  always  filled  his  imagination,  and 
which  have  become  the  world's  precious  possessions. 

His  irritability  and  violent  explosions  of  ungov- 
ernable rage  were  largely  due  to  the  same  cause ; 
for,  with  a  nervous  constitution  sensitive  and  ex- 
citable in  the  extreme,  any  interruption  of  his  pre- 
occupation, especially  any  disagreeable  interference 
with  the  flow  of  his  ideas,  was  a  rude  shock  which 
roused  sudden  and  violent  resentment.  But  though 
he  was  not  very  considerate  of  other  people's  rights 
and  feelings  in  minor  matters,  in  greater  ones  it 
was  not  so.  If  he  did  not  tithe  the  mint,  anise  and 
cummin,  he  did  not  neglect  the  weightier  matters  of 
the  law.  The  surface  of  his  behavior  was  often 
ruffled  by  gusts  of  ill-temper,  but  the  depths  of  his 
soul  remained  in  profound  quiet.    And  depths  there 


LUDWIG  VAN  BEETHOVEN. 


8i 


were,  and  heights,  too,  in  the  soul  of  this  man,  such 
as  few  could  measure  or  fathom ;  a  profundity  of 
passion,  a  loftiness  of  thinking,  a  nobility  of  feeling, 
an  elevation  of  purpose  such  as  commanded  the  re- 
spect of  all  discerning  persons. 

Doubtless  this  alone  would  not  account  for  his  re- 
lations to  the  Vienna  aristocracy,  any  more  than  his 
musical  gifts  and  attainments  would  be  sufficient. 
But  the  central  point  is  that  Beethoven  s  music  em- 
bodied all  that  was  noblest  and  best  in  his  character. 
It  was  not  mere  arrangement  and  combination  of 
sounds  for  amusement;  it  was  not  even  merely  the 
creation  of  beautiful  forms,  for  the  gratification  of  a 
high  aesthetic  taste;  it  was  the  embodiment  of  emotion- 
al experiences  which  could  only  have  been  possible  to 
a  man  of  the  highest  intellectual  endowments,  the 
profoundest  capacity  of  feeling,  whose  thoughts  and 
emotions  and  purposes  were  ideally  pure  and  noble. 

Beethoven  took  his  art  seriously;  as  seriously  as  a 
saint  and  martyr  takes  his  religion.  To  him  it  in- 
volved right  living ;  it  was  a  perpetual  consecration. 
The  fire  of  his  enthusiasm  burned  continually 
without  abatement.  This  consecration,  this  abso- 
lute devotion  to  ideal  aims  was  the  attraction  which 
drew  to  him  the  noblest,  the  purest,  the  most  refined 
of  the  men  and  women  of  the  time  and  place  in 
which  he  lived;  and  this  it  is  which  gives  him  a 
place  among  the  highest  in  the  love  and  the  esteem 
of  the  best  of  our  day. 

His  immortality  as  a  composer  is  due  mainly  to 
the  nobility  of  the  content  of  his  compositions.  His 


82 


HISTORY  OF  PIANOFORTE  MUSIC. 


sonatas,  symphonies,  trios  and  quartets  are  indeed 
master-pieces  in  form  and  style ;  but  Form,  with 
Beethoven,  was  not  the  most  important  matter. 
The  classical  form  of  the  sonata  had  already  reached 
its  culmination  in  Haydn  and  Mozart.  Beethoven 
accepted  this  form,  without  question,  as  it  came 
from  the  hands  of  his  elder  contemporaries,  and 
soon  began  to  manifest  his  originality  by  filling  it 
with  a  new  emotional  content.  The  very  first  of  his 
pianoforte  sonatas  are  superior  to  the  best  of 
Mozart's  in  point  of  significance.  Indeed,  the  adagio 
of  his  first  sonata,  in  F  minor,  op.  2,  is  incompar- 
ably more  beautiful  than  anything  of  the  kind  which 
had  preceded  it,  and  this  beauty  is  due,  not  to 
greater  perfection  of  form,  not  to  superior  elegance 
or  grace  of  style,  but  to  its  noble  serenity  of  spirit, 
"a  peace  that  passeth  understanding,"  peace  which 
comes  from  the  consciousness  of  union  with  the 
Highest,  the  repose  won  by  self-conquest,  by  strug- 
gle and  victory. 

In  Haydn's  pianoforte  compositions  there  reigns 
the  cheerfulness  of  child-like  innocence,  perpetual 
freshness  of  spirit,  with  no  evidence  of  any  heights 
or  depths  of  passion,  of  struggle  with  temptation  or 
with  fate,  or  any  knowledge  of  evil,  profound  sor- 
row or  suffering.  For  aught  that  appears  in  most 
of  them  he  might  always  have  retained  the  feelings 
of  a  healthy,  good-natured,  careless  child,  at  play  in 
the  sunshine.  And  this  was  doubtless  the  spirit  in 
which  he  habitually  wrote.  He  had  annoyances 
and  troubles,  but  instead  of  seeking  to  express  his 


LUDWIG  VAN  BEETHOVEN. 


83 


troubled  feelings  in  music  he  used  his  art  as  a  refuge 
from  all  things  unpleasant,  forgetting  them  in  the 
creation  of  beautiful  forms  and  combinations,  into 
which  he  always  infused  a  cheerful  mood.  At  least 
there  was  seldom  anything  more  divergent  from  this 
than  a  mild  melancholy,  introduced  for  the  sake  of 
enhancing  the  gayer  mood  by  contrast.  In  Mozart 
the  -characteristic  mood  is  gayety,  keen  enjoyment, 
a  never-failing  appetite  for  pleasure  ;  but  the  sources 
of  this  pleasure  are  not  so  simple.  He  is  more 
many-sided  ;  has  had  a  wider  experience  of  men  and 
things ;  has  vastly  more  impressions  to  reproduce. 
Into  his  short  thirty-five  years  were  crowded  a  rich- 
ness and  variety  of  social  and  musical  experience, 
from  his  life  in  the  pleasure-loving  Austrian  capital, 
in  comparison  with  which,  Haydn's  quiet,  retired 
life  at  Prince  Esterhazy's  country  seat,  occupied  in 
composing  for  his  own  small  orchestra  and  choir,  was 
simplicity  itself. 

Accordingly,  we  find  in  Mozart's  music,  as  the 
unconscious  reproduction  of  his  emotional  life,  a 
many-sidedness,  a  variety  and  richness,  especially 
in  the  coloring  of  his  orchestral  compositions,  to 
which  his  older  contemporary  can  lay  no  claim. 
But  in  all  this  there  is  little  of  grandeur  or  sublim- 
ity. Grace,  there  is,  consummate  ease  and  elegance, 
the  polish  of  a  complete  man  of  the  world,  who  is 
perfectly  at  home  in  all  "elegant  society,  gives  him- 
self up  to  his  daily  pleasures  with  the  frank  and 
hearty  abandon  of  a  boy,  accepts  life  as  he  finds  it, 
and  never  troubles  his   head  with  its  deeper  and 


84 


HISTORY  OF  PIANOFORTE  MUSIC. 


sadder  problems,  and  whose  good-humor,  zest  for 
pleasure  and  buoyancy  of  spirits,  nothing  can  over- 
come. 

Not  indeed  that  the  music  of  either  Haydn  or 
Mozart  is  frivolous  or  shallow,  far  from  it.  To  both, 
music  was  a  serious  occupation,  an  exalted  pleasure, 
and,  barring  some  few  things  written  from  the  ne- 
cessity of  earning  money,  and  lacking  the  true  in- 
spiration, the  ruling  motive  seems  to  have  been  to 
embody  an  ideal  of  beauty  conditioned  on  sensuous- 
ly beautiful  tones  combined  into  logical  forms. 
This  music  is  not  only  not  trivial,  but  often  has  a 
noble  emotional  significance.  The  ruling  mood  in 
it  seems  to  be  the  keen  pleasure  experienced  by  the 
composer  in  the  contemplation  of  his  own  beautiful 
conception,  and  in  the  work  of  artistic  creation. 
This  refers  more  especially  to  the  purely  instru- 
mental compositions  of  both.  When  they  had  to 
deal  with  words,  they  embodied  the  emotions  raised 
by  the  ideas  of  the  text.  This  they  did,  doubtless, 
intuitively  and  in  a  sense  unconsciously.  It  is  not 
probable  that  either  of  them  philosophized  much,  if 
at  all,  about  the  relation  of  music  to  emotion,  and 
its  proper  limits  as  a  means  of  emotional  expression. 
But  they  both  instinctively  felt  what  was  fitting  in 
the  relation  of  their  music  to  the  words  chosen. 

There  are  indeed  instances,  such  as  the  peculiar 
figure  in  "  The  Creation  "  at  the  words,  "  With  sud- 
den leap  the  flexible  tiger  appears,"  and  other  simi- 
lar cases  in  the  same  work,  which  almost  look  like 
crude  attempts  to  "  depict "  the  leap  of  the  tiger, 


LUDWIG  VAN  BEETHOVEN. 


85 


etc.,  but  everywhere  Haydn  is  saved,  by  innate  re- 
finement of  perception,  from  the  fatal  step  which 
would  land  him  in  the  ridiculous. 

The  operas  of  Mozart  are  full  of  admirable  exam- 
ples of  dramatic  characterization.  Indeed,  neither 
Haydn  nor  Mozart  appears  at  his  best  in  his  piano- 
forte music ;  a  fact  doubtless  due,  at  least  in  part, 
to  the  limitations  and  imperfections  of  the  instru- 
ment in  their  time.  When  they  deal  with  the  or- 
chestra or  with  voices,  the  content  of  their  music  be- 
comes nobler  and  more  characteristic.  Still,  in  the 
instrumental  compositions,  the  form  seems  always 
to  have  been  a  prime  consideration,  and  neither 
seems  to  have  attempted  or  even  desired  to  embody 
a  content  which  could  not  be  perfectly  expressed 
through  the  form  of  the  sonata. 

With  Beethoven  the  case  was  different.  His  was 
a  larger,  deeper,  more  powerful  nature,  with  super- 
abundance of  untamed  energy.  He  was  saturated 
with  the  great  ideas  of  his  time,  the  time  of  the 
French  Revolution;  he  was  independent  to  the  last 
degree,  carrying  his  contempt  for  old  forms  and  eti- 
quette to  an  extreme  which  accounts  for  much  of 
his  rudeness  of  behavior.  He  would  have  no  social 
shams,  no  cant,  no  hypocrisy,  no  putting  the  best 
side  out,  no  shallow  compliments,  no  superiority  ex- 
cept such  as  was  created  by  character  and  gifts. 
Was  his  brother  Johann  a  "  property  owner  ? "  He 
was  a  "brain  owner."  Had  the  Austrian  Emperor 
and  nobles,  title,  rank,  wealth  ?  He  had  what  rank 
could  not  give  nor  money  purchase,  the  genius  and 


86 


HISTORY  OF  PIANOFORTE  MUSIC. 


gifts  which  God  had  bestowed  upon  him,  and  he  not 
only  asserted  but  forced  acknowledgment  of  his 
equality  with  the  proudest  of  the  aristocracy.  The 
great  ideas  of  Liberty,  Equality,  Fraternity,  filled  and 
inspired  him  with  emotions  unknown  to  his  prede- 
cessors. 

If  these  ideas  and  feelings  found  mistaken  and 
unworthy  forms  of  expression  in  his  outward  be- 
havior, they  came  to  the  noblest  and  most  inspiring 
embodiment  in  his  great  compositions.  Witness  the 
Symphony  "  Eroica,"  the  Fifth  and  Ninth  Sympho-^ 
nies,  the  "  Sonata  Appassionata,"  the  Sonatas  from 
op.  loi  to  op.  Ill,  as  conspicuous  examples. 

This  new  and  superior  emotional  content  had  a 
marked  effect  on  the  formal  construction  of  his  com- 
positions. He  did  indeed  write  sonatas  to  the  end 
of  his  life,  but  he  modified  the  form  to  suit  the  con- 
tent which  he  had  to  express  and  for  which  the 
somewhat  stiff  and  formal  outlines  of  the  classic 
sonata  were  no  longer  adapted.  Neither  Haydn 
nor  Mozart  seemed  to  have  anything  to  say  which 
could  not  be  said  while  giving  supreme  place  to 
classical  symmetry  of  form,  balance  of  nearly  re- 
lated keys  and  uniformity  of  plan  in  a  whole  series 
of  works.  What  Beethoven  had  to  say  required 
greater  freedom  in  the  treatment  of  themes,  greater 
variety  in  keys  and  frequency  of  abrupt  modulation, 
and  not  seldom  departures  from  the  traditional  pro- 
portions of  the  principal  and  subordinate  groups. 
These  modifications  are  no  contribution  to  the  com- 
pletion of  the  classical  form  ;  that  was  already  per- 


LUDIVIG  VAA'  BEETHOVEN. 


87 


feet ;  that  ideal  had  already  been  realized;  they  were  Chap^vi. 
departures  from  the  classical  in  the  direction  of  the 
Romantic  ideal.  To  quote  an  able  writer:*  "  None 
of  these  alterations  and  additions  to  the  usual  forms 
were  made  by  Beethoven  for  their  own  sake.  They 
were  made  because  he  had  something  to  say  on  his 
subject  which  the  rules  did  not  give  him  time  and 
space  to  say,  and  which  he  could  not  leave  unsaid. 
His  work  is  a  poem,  in  which  the  thoughts  and  emo- 
tions are  the  first  things,  and  the  forms  of  expression 
second  and  subordinate." 

This  intellectual  and  emotional  content  is  admira-  Dann- 

reuther's 

bly  characterized  by  Mr.  Edward  Dannreuther  in  estiinate 
an  article  quoted  by  Mr.  Grove.  "  While  listening  music. 
to  such  works  as  the  Overture  to  Leonora,  the  Sin- 
fonia  Eroica,  or  the  Ninth  Symphony,  we  feel  that  we 
are  in  the  presence  of  something  far  wider  and 
higher  than  the  mere  development  of  musical 
themes.  The  execution  in  detail  of  each  movement 
and  each  succeeding  work  is  modified  more  and 
more  with  the  prevailing  poetic  sentiment.  A  re- 
ligious passion  and  elevation  are  present  in  the  ut- 
terances. The  mental  and  moral  horizon  of  the 
music  grows  upon  us  with  each  new  hearing.  The 
different  movements,  like  the  different  particles  of 
each  movement,  have  as  close  a  connection  with 
each  other  as  the  acts  of  a  tragedy,  and  a  character- 
istic significance  to  be  understood  only  in  relation 

*See  Grove's  Dictionary  of  Music  and  Musicians,  article  Beethoven, 
page  207. 


88 


HISTORY  OF  PIANOFORTE  MUSIC. 


to  the  whole  ;  each  work  is  in  the  full  sense  of  the 
word  a  revelation. 

"  Beethoven  speaks  a  language  no  one  has  spoken 
before,  and  treats  of  things  no  one  has  dreamt  of 
before  ;  yet  it  seems  as  though  he  were  speaking  of 
matters  long  familiar,  in  one's  mother-tongue  ;  as 
though  he  touched  upon  emotions  one  had  lived 
through  in  some  former  existence.  The  warmth 
and  depth  of  his  ethical  sentiment  is  now  felt  all 
the  world  over,  and  it  will  ere  long  be  universally 
recognized  that  he  has  leavened  and  widened  the 
sphere  of  men's  emotions  in  a  manner  akin  to  that 
in  which  the  conceptions  of  great  philosophers  and 
poets  have  widened  the  sphere  of  men's  intellectual 
activity." 

Having  sought  to  account  for  Beethoven's  rela- 
tions to  the  society  in  which  he  lived,  by  giving 
some  notion  of  his  character  and  works,  it  is  now 
time  to  return  to  the  narrative  of  his  life,  which 
shall  be  briefly  sketched.  Our  digression  began  at 
the  point  when  he  had  come  to  settle  in  Vienna,  had 
been  taken  up  by  Prince  Lichnowsky  and  Baron 
von  Swieten,  and  was  taking  lessons  of  Haydn  and 
Albrechtsberger.  This  was  in  1792.-  His  studies 
in  composition  began  to  bear  excellent  fruit  in  about 
three  years.  In  July,  1795,  were  published  his  three 
pianoforte  trios,  op.  i,  and  soon  afterward  the  three 
pianoforte  sonatas,  op.  2.  These  works  were  evi- 
dently modelled  on  Haydn  and  Mozart,  the  best 
composers  of  his  time,  but  they  are  original  and 
characteristic.    They  excited  much  enthusiasm,  one 


LUDIVIG  VAN  BEETHOVEN. 

X 


89 


evidence  of  which  is  the  proposal  made  to  him  by 
Count  Appony  to  write  a  string  quartet  at  his  own 
price. 

Before  and  during  this  year  he  had  also  written 
several  of  his  minor  compositions  for  the  pianoforte, 
and  what  is  of  more  importance,  his  first  and  second 
concertos.  The  concerto  in  C  major  he  played  at  a 
concert  in  the  Burg  theater  given  for  the  benefit  of 
a  widow's  fund  of  the  Artist's  Society,  and  surprised 
the  musicians  by  the  feat  of  playing  it  in  C  sharp, 
the  pianoforte  being  a  half  tone  flat.  He  also 
played  at  other  concerts  this  year,  one  of  them 
Haydn's. 

The  record  of  1796  is  much  the  same.  The  most 
significant  compositions  of  this  year  were  the  piano- 
forte Sonata  in  E  flat,  op.  7,  so  markedly  original  as 
to  create  a  new  epoch  in  pianoforte  music,  and 
the  quintet  for  piano  and  wind  instruments,  op.  16. 
He  continued  to  grow  steadily  from  year  to  year. 
Most  of  his  compositions  for  some  time  naturally 
fell  below  the  mark  he  had  reached  in  the  E  flat 
Sonata  in  point  of  originality,  but  they  were  all  sig- 
nificant, and  the  Sonata,  op.  10,  No.  3,  written  in 
1798,  is  an  important  landmark  in  his  progress.  In 
1797,  his  noble  love-song,  '^Adelaide,"  was  written. 
His  work  in  composition  was  varied  by  concerts  and 
much  private  playing.  He  used  to  meet  his  brother 
musicians  and  engage  in  friendly  trials  of  skill.  In 
one  of  these  encounters,  not  so  friendly,  he  worsted 
Steibelt,  who  was  very  jealous  of  him,  by  taking  the 
violoncello  part  of  Steibelt's  new  quintet,  turning  it 


90 


HISTORY  OF  PIANOFORTE  MUSIC. 


upside  down,  and  improvising  on  the  theme  thus  ob- 
tained so  brilliantly  that  Steibelt  was  fairly  driven 
from  the  room.  His  frequent  meetings  with  Woefl 
were  more  satisfactory.  Both  were  excellent  players 
and  improvisators,  and  both  thoroughly  enjoyed 
their  frequent  musical  contests. 

Beethoven  soon  began  to  plan  larger  works. 
"The  Sonata  pathetique  "  was  written  in  1799,  ^"^^ 
a  beginning  was  made  on  the  string  quartets,  op.  18, 
the  septet,  the  first  symphony,  and  his  oratorio, 
"  The  Mount  of  Olives."  His  pianoforte  sonata  in 
B  flat,  op.  22,  was  also  begun  about  this  time,  and 
the  third  concerto  in  C  minor,  followed  very  soon. 
All  through  the  first  year  of  the  present  century  he 
was  absorbed  in  these  works  and  in  conceiving  new 
ones,  though  "  The  Mount  of  Olives  "  was  not  fin- 
ished for  some  years.  His  mental  activity  was  in- 
cessant. The  list  of  all  his  works  and  the  details 
concerning  them  would  occupy  more  space  than  can 
be  given  them  in  this  chapter.  Only  salient  points 
which  serve  to  trace  his  mental  growth  and  the  de- 
velopment of  his  genius  can  here  be  indicated. 

Among  the  pianoforte  compositions,  which  more 
immediately  concern  us,  there  were  the  sonatas  in 
A  flat,  op.  26,  the  two  sonatas,  op.  27,  of  which  the 
one  in  C  sharp  minor,  commonly  known  as  the 
"  Moonlight,"  is  among  the  most  original  of  all  his 
works,  and  the  so-called  "  Pastoral  "  sonata,  op.  28, 
all  of  which  belong  to  the  year  1800. 

But  he  was  now  becoming  seriously  deaf.  For 
some  time  he  had  suffered  from  violent  noises  in  his 


LUDIVIG  VAN  BEETHOVEN. 


91 


ears,  and  the  case  was  rapidly  growing  worse. 
Many  physicians  were  consulted,  but  none  of  them 
could  help  him.  At  thirty  years  old,  this  greatest 
of  musicians  and  composers  was  looking  forward  to 
the  prospect  of  being  unable  to  hear  a  single  note. 
The  key-note  of  his  character  is  given  in  the  follow- 
ing quotation  from  a  letter  of  his,  which  shows  how 
he  faced  it  :  "I  will,  as  far  as  possible,  defy  my 
fate,  though  there  must  be  moments  when  I  shall  be 
the  most  miserable  of  God's  creatures.  Not  un- 
happy, no  ;  that  I  could  never  endure.  I  will  grap- 
ple with  fate  ;  it  never  shall  drag  me  down."  This 
is  the  mood  of  the  "  sonata  appassionata,"  a  sonata 
which  must  always  remain  one  of  the  noblest  of  hu- 
man utterances,  the  revelation  of  a  high  soul,  sub- 
jected to  suffering  the  most  intense,  yet  unconquered 
and  unconquerable. 

In  spite  of  his  sufferings  and  his  apprehensions 
he  worked  on  diligently.  He  commonly  had  sever- 
al new  compositions  in  his  mind  at  once,  turned 
them  over  and  over,  sketched  them  slowly,  elabo- 
rated them  laboriously,  and  only  by  slow  degrees  did 
any  of  them  grow  to  completeness.  The  spontane- 
ity and  marvelous  rapidity  of  production  which 
strike  us  so  forcibly  in  Mozart  were  never  character- 
istic of  Beethoven,  but  the  works  which  grew  in  his 
mind  so  slowly  attained  majestic  proportions  and 
overtopped  those  of  Mozart  as  the  slow-growing, 
lofty  oak  towers  above  the  graceful  birch  or  the 
quick-growing  aspen. 

The  sonatas  above  referred  to  already  had  much 


92 


HISTORY  OF  PIANOFORTE  MUSIC. 


Chap.  VI. 


Sonatas^ 
op.  31. 


of  this  loftiness  of  character.  The  year  1803  saw 
another  step  in  his  development,  the  production  of 
the  sonatas,  op.  31,  in  which  he  himself  recognized 
a  change  in  his  style  ;  he  also  wrote  the  three  violin 
sonatas,  op.  30,  and  some  minor  compositions.  But 
the  most  important  work  which  occupied  him  at 
this  time  was  his  Third  Symphony,  the  "  Eroica," 
the  inspiration  of  which  is  drawn  from  the  noblest 
ideas  which  underlay  the  French  Revolution,  and 
from  the  career  of  Napoleon  Bonaparte  up  to  the 
time  of  his  assuming  the  title  of  Emperor.  The 
work  was  already  finished  and  dedicated  to  Napo- 
leon when  the  news  of  this  event  came  to  Vienna. 
Beethoven  tore  off  the  title  page  and  dashed  it  on 
the  floor  in  a  rage. 

The  next  year  his  one  noble  opera,  "Fidelio," 
was  written,  and  other  important  compositions, 
which  can  not  here  be  dwelt  upon,  followed  rapidly. 
Full  details  are  to  be  found  in  Grove's  Dictionary 
and  elsewhere. 

So  it  went  on  until  18 15,  when  his  brother  Casper 
died,  and  this  event  was  the  beginning  of  the  last 
epoch  in  Beethoven's  life.  Casper  left  his  son  Carl, 
then  some  eight  years  old,  to  the  care  of  his  brother, 
and  as  the  boy  turned  out  wholly  worthless,  he  be- 
came a  constant  source  of  worry  and  anxiety  to  his 
already  overburdened  uncle. 

The  case  was  further  complicated  by  the  fact  that 
Carl's  mother  was  determined  to  get  possession  of 
him,  and  contested  Beethoven's  right  to  him  in  the 
courts,  while  Ludwig  regarded  his  sister-in-law  as  a 


LUDWIG  VAN  BEETHOVEN. 


93 


disreputable  person,  unfit  to  have  charge  of  her  son,  Chap^vi. 
and  resolutely  declined  to  allow  her  to  have  any- 
thing to  do  with  him.    The  added  sorrow  and  vexa- 
tion which  these  untoward  circumstances  caused  the 
composer,  must  have  hindered  his  work  and  hast- 
ened the  exhaustion  of  his  powers,  but  he  worked  on, 
bravely  and  steadily,  produced  and  published  his 
great  works  for  pianoforte,  his  chamber  music,  sym- 
phonies, etc.,  one  after  another,  while  his  deafness 
grew  upon  him,  his  domestic  griefs  and  anxiety  in- 
creased, and  his  health  gradually  failed.    It  became  He  becomes 
impossible  for  him  to  hear  even  the  loudest  notes  of  ^dla/!' 
the  orchestra,  and  all  communication  with  him  had 
to  be  in  writing. 

But  it  is  doubtless  due  partly  to  these  very  cir- 
cumstances, apparently  so  unfavorable,  that  this 
latter  period  of  Beethoven's  life  was  rich  in  the 
noblest  and  most  original  of  his  compositions.  His 
music  was  the  expression  of  his  emotional  experi- 
ence, and  this  experience  was  deepened,  purified, 
exalted,  ennobled,  by  the  fires  of  affliction.  "  It  is 
only  fire  that  takes  out  dross,"  and  out  of  the 
furnace  came  the  real  gold  of  Beethoven's  character. 
What  he  was,  in  his  inmost  soul,  that  his  music 
shows.    What  was  mean  in  his  externals  or  rude  in  his 

Last 

behavior  was  mere  husk  ;  the  real  heart  of  him  is  in  -works. 
the  Sonata,  op.  iii  and  the  Ninth  Symphony. 

The  terrible  trials  out  of  which  these  works  grew, 
continued  for  twelve  years,  and  then  came  the  end. 
His  worthless  nephew  made  him  much  trouble,  fin- 
ally attempted  suicide,  and  was  ordered  out  of  Vi- 


94 


HISTORY  OF  PIANOFORTE  MUSIC. 


Chap.  VI. 


enna  by  the  police.  Beethoven  went  with  the  boy 
to  his  brother  Johann's  in  the  country.  Here  he 
and  Johann  had  a  tif¥,  aild  he  returned  to  Vienna  in 
bad  weather,  took  cold,  soon  had  inflammation  of 
the  lungs  and  then  dropsy.  He  never  rose  from 
this  sickness,  but  died  on  the  26th  of  March,  1827. 


CHAPTER  VII. 


The  Transition  fro?n  the  Classic  to  the  Romantic 
Period. 

THE  CLASSIC  AND  THE  ROMANTIC  IN  MUSIC. 


The  term  "  classic  "  is  used  in  two  senses.  In  the 
one  sense  it  means — having  permanent  interest  and 
value — and  is  thus  contrasted  with  the  evanescent 
and  the  ephemeral.  In  this  sense  any  composition 
is  a  classic  which  succeeds  in  maintaining  its  place 
in  the  interest  of  mankind  for  ages  after  the  death 
of  its  author.  No  one  can  certainly  determine  dur- 
ing the  lifetime  of  any  composer  whether  his  works 
are  classics  in  this  sense  or  not,  because  the  only 
sure  test  is  that  of  time.  We  may,  indeed,  have 
reason  to  think  that  a  given  work  of  excellence  pos- 
sesses elements  of  permanent  and  universal  interest, 
but  in  such  matters  it  is  easy  to  be  misled,  and  the 
history  of  music  and  of  literature  affords  innumera- 
ble instances  of  errors  in  judgment  as  regards  this 
point  on  the  part  of  critics  and  connoisseurs.  We 
can  not,  therefore,  safely  predicate  the  term  "  classic  " 
in  the  first  sense  of  any  contemporary  works.  What- 
ever has  come  down  to  us  from  a  period  sufficiently 
remote  to  show  that  the  interest  it  awakens  is  per- 
manent, that  the  world  will  not  willingly  let  it  die, 

95 


96 


HISTORY  OF  PIANOFORTE  MUSIC. 


Chap.  VII. 


Classic  and 
romantic 
ideals 
contrasted. 


Relation  of 
for  HI  to 
content 


is  classic  ;  nothing  else  is,  though  many  among  con- 
temporary works  may  possibly  become  so. 

In  the  second  sense,  the  term  '^classic,"  or,  more 
commonly,  "  classical,"  is  used  to  designate  music 
written  in  a  particular  style,  aiming  at  the  embodi- 
ment of  a  certain  ideal,  the  chief  element  of  which 
is  Beauty  of  Form.  In  this  sense  it  is  contrasted 
with  the  term  "  Romantic,"  a  term  used  to  designate 
music  which  aims  at  embodying  a  different  ideal^ 
that  of  the  vivid  and  truthful  expression  of  varied 
and  strongly  contrasted  emotional  experiences,  such 
as  we  are  accustomed  to  connect  with  the  word 
"  romantic  "  in  literature  and  in  life. 

In  "  classical  "  music,  in  this  sense,  Form  is  first 
and  content  is  subordinate  ;  in  "  romantic  "  music 
content  is  first  and  Form  is  subordinate.  The  clas- 
sical ideal  is  predominantly  an  intellectual  one.  Its 
products  are  characterized  by  clearness  of  thought, 
by  completeness  and  symmetry,  by  harmonious  pro- 
portion, by  simplicity  and  repose.  Classical  works, 
whether  musical  or  literary,  are  positive,  clear, 
finished.  The  following  axioms  from  Aristotle's 
"  Poetics  "  (quoted  in  the  New  American  Cyclope- 
dia, article  "classics",)  apply  quite  as  well  to 
classical  music  as  to  Greek  poetry.  "  There  is 
nothing  beautiful  in  literature  nor  the  arts  which  may 
not  be  clearly  analyzed  by  the  intellect.''  "Every 
poem  must  be  contained  within  prescribed  bounda- 
ries, so  that  it  may  be  easy  for  the  mind  to  embrace 
it  at  a  single  glance,  and  to  form  a  single  concep- 
tion or  picture  of  it." 


THE  CLASSIC  AND  ROMANTIC, 


These  are  the  fundamental  principles  which 
underUe  all  classical  compositions. 

It  is  easy  to  see  that,  up  to  Beethoven's  time,  the 
classical  ideal  had  been  predominant,  at  least  in 
pianoforte  music.  Indeed,  no  other  had  come  for- 
ward with  any  prominence.  There  were  sporadic 
cases  which  did  not  conform  to  the  classical  ideal, 
but  there  was  no  other  style  generally  recognized  or 
sought  after. 

The  Bach  fugues,  in  which  the  polyphonic  mode 
of  writing  culminated,  and  the  Mozart  sonatas,  con- 
certos, quartets,  and  symphonies,  in  which  the  limit 
of  development  of  monophonic  Form  was  reached^ 
have  all  the  characteristics  above  described.  They 
are,  indeed,  often  long  and  complex,  composed  of 
many  parts,  developed  to  an  extent  unknown  to 
earlier  composers,  but  their  plan  is  always  simple 
and  easily  grasped  as  a  whole  and  in  its  details,  it  is 
strictly  logical,  it  has  the  most  perfect  unity  of  idea, 
its  parts  are  symmetrically  balanced,  the  proportions 
are  simple,  the  modulations  are  confined  to  a  nar- 
row range  of  nearly  related  keys  for  the  sake  of 
simplicity  and  clearness  ;  in  short,  the  composer 
laid  all  possible  stress  on  the  necessity  of  producing 
beautiful,  clearly  intelligible  works,  satisfactory  to 
the  intellect  and  to  the  logical  sense. 

This  being  the  case,  it  is  obvious  that  the  emo- 
tional content  of  them  must  necessarily  have  been 
simple.  A  composer  whose  mind  is  mainly  occu- 
pied with  the  intellectual  side  of  his  work,  who  aims 
primarily  at  clearness  of  statement  as  the  main  con- 

G  5 


98 


HISTORY  OF  PIANOFORTE  MUSIC. 


dition  of  formal  beauty,  can  not  at  the  same  time  be 
agitated  by  violent  and  contending  passions,  or  dis- 
turbed by  vague  yearnings  or  urgent  desires.  The 
i  emotional  content  of  his  forms  must  be  simple  and 
j  reposeful,  such  as  simple  pleasure  or  sadness,  ele- 
vated joy  in  the  contemplation  of  grandeur,  or 
melancholy  of  a  mild  type.  The  simpler  emotional 
experiences  alone  were  adapted  for  expression 
through  the  strictly  classical  forms,  and  accordingly 
we  find  no  other  in  the  works  of  the  composers 
above  referred  to,  or  in  those  of  their  contempo- 
raries. 

Imagination  there  is  in  their  works,  and  that 
of  the  finest  type,  but  it  deals  with  its  musical 
materials  solely  with  reference  to  an  Ideal  of  Beauty, 
of  which  the  expression  of  violent  and  conflicting 
emotions  formed  no  part,  and  to  which  such  emo- 
tions were  not  only  foreign  but  antagonistic.  It  is 
characteristic,  too,  that  not  only  were  simple  emo- 
tions, or  moods,  more  or  less  indefinite  or  vague, 
the  sole  content  admissible  in  their  mode  of  writing, 
but  that  these  moods  in  their  successions  and  rela- 
tions were,  like  the  form  of  the  compositions,  devel- 
oped in  a  logical  way,  were  conceived  as  under 
rational  control  and  subordinate  to  intelligence. 
They  were,  in  short,  the  natural  expressions  of  the 
emotional  life  of  healthy,  simple,  natural,  well-regu- 
lated minds,  living  in  the  present,  engrossed  mainly 
with  present  enjoyments  more  or  less  refined,  and 
wholly  free  from  disquieting  questions,  and  from 
unrest  of  every  sort. 


THE  CLASSIC  AND  ROMANTIC. 


99 


With  Beethoven  the  case  was  different.  His  men- 
tal and  moral  horizon  was  wider,  his  aspirations 
higher,  his  sympathies  stronger  and  more  intense, 
his  joys  and  sorrows  struck  deeper  root  in  pro- 
founder  soil,  and  spread  their  branches  in  loftier  and 
purer  air,  receiving  more  of  sunshine  and  casting 
deeper  shadow. 

In  all  the  great  artists  there  has  been  prominent 
the  conception  of  the  Beautiful  as  a  manifestation 
of  the  Divine,  and  therefore  as  closely  connected 
with  ideals  of  religion  and  morality.  The  percep- 
tion of  this  is  their  greatest  claim  to  be  seers  and 
prophets  for  the  race.  But  with  Beethoven  this  was 
pre-eminently  the  case.  The  "  religious  passion 
and  elevation "  quoted  from  Mr.  Dannreuther  in 
the  last  chapter,  is  the  key-note  of  his  character,  and 
he  was  a  musician  and  not  something  else,  because 
he  found  in  his  chosen  art  the  most  perfect  medium 
in  which  to  embody  his  most  characteristic  ideals 
and  feelings. 

He  was  powerfully  affected  by  the  French  Revo- 
lution, and  gave  a  passionate  response  to  the  great 
ideas  which  gave  rise  to  it.  But  he  was  also  strongly 
influenced  by  his  study  of  English  literature  and  of 
the  German  school  of  Romantic  Poetry,  with  both 
of  which  he  became  acquainted  in  his  youth,  in  the 
house  of  Madame  von  Breuning.  This  latter  school 
was  made  up  of  young  men,  his  contemporaries, 
and  aimed  at  nothing  less  than  freeing  German 
Poetry  from  the  shackles  of  a  blind  imitation  of  the 
stiff  and   affected  pseudo  classicism   of  France. 


lOO 


HISTORY  OF  PIANOFORTE  MUSIC 


French  literature  had  up  to  this  time  been  predom- 
inant in  German  thought,  and  its  stilted  forms  had 
served  as  the  only  accepted  models  for  German 
writers. 

The  young  writers  of  the  new  school  discarded 
the  current  rules,  sought  their  models  and  subjects 
in  the  middle  age  romances,  laid  all  possible  stress 
on  the  vivid  representation  of  natural  feelings  in 
their  most  vigorous  manifestations  and  little  or  none 
on  conventional  rules  or  established  principles  of 
composition.  They  dealt  in  violent  passions,  in 
strongly  contrasted  situations,  in  weird  and  fantastic 
images.  They  put  desire  and  yearning  in  the  place 
of  present  enjoyment ;  vague  mysticism  in  the  place 
of  definite  clearness  of  ideas  ;  well-defined,  powerful 
feelings  in  the  place  of  simple,  vague  moods. 

It  is  probable  that  Beethoven  did  not  definitely 
propose  to  himself  to  attempt  in  music  the  same 
sort  of  revolution  which  Tieck,  the  Schlegels  and 
others  were  accomplishing  in  German  literature. 
Very  likely  he  did  little  or  no  philosophizing  on  the 
subject ;  but  he  was  strongly  influenced  by  the  intel- 
lectual movements  of  his  time,  with  what  result  we 
have  already  seen.  He  proclaimed  no  new  revolu- 
tionary gospel  in  the  forms  of  composition.  Out- 
wardly, he  conformed  to  the  classical  school,  just  as 
he  nominally  belonged  to  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church.  But  in  both  cases  the  inward  spirit  is  too 
great  for  the  form  in  which  it  is  contained. 

The  Romantic  School  really  began  with  Beetho- 
ven, and  his  example  and  character  gave  it  its  most 


TFIE  CLASSIC  AND  ROMANTIC. 


lOI 


powerful  impulse,  though  there  is,  perhaps,  not  a 
word  to  be  quoted  from  him  in  direct  advocacy  of 
the  new  principle. 

It  was  left  to  the  young  men  of  the  next  genera- 
tion to  devote  themselves  with  full  consciousness  of 
their  own  aims  to  the  promotion  of  the  principles 
which  underlay  his  practice,  to  fight  the  battle  of 

David  against  the  Philistines,"  and  to  establish  the 
supremacy  of  the  nobler  aspirations  of  human 
nature,  of  the  unrest  of  dissatisfaction  with  imper- 
fection and  wrong,  of  yearning  and  outreaching 
desire  for  better  things,  of  agitated  striving,  of 
resistance,  struggle  and  conquest  as  motives  in  art, 
as  against  simple,  childlike  pleasure  and  pain,  quiet 
repose  and  harmonious  beauty. 

Two  great  contemporaries  of  Beethoven  shared 
the  influences  which  affected  him,  and  with  him  pre- 
pared the  way  for  the  romantic  composers  proper ; 
to  them  the  next  chapter  will  be  devoted. 


Chap.  VII. 

The 

romantic 
school  of 
7tiusic 

begins  with 
him. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 


Beethoven's  two  greatest  contemporaries  in 
the  domain  of  pianoforte  music. 
Carl  Maria  von  Weber  (1786-1826). 
Franz  Peter  Schubert  (1797-1828). 


Carl  Maria  von  Weber  was  born  at  Eutin,  in 
Holstein,  December  18,  1786.  He  came  of  a  family 
in  whom  the  love  of  music,  and  still  more  the  love 
of  the  drama,  had  been  prominent  traits.  In  some 
of  them,  indeed,  these  two  impulses  had  become 
consuming  passions.  The  boy's  father,  Franz 
Anton,  was  one  of  these.  He  does  not  seem  to 
have  possessed  remarkable  abilities,  either  histrionic 
or  musical,  and  had  had  excellent  opportunities  to 
rise  in  the  world  in  other  callings  ;  but  his  innate 
tendencies  toward  music  and  the  stage  impelled  him 
irresistibly  into  the  life  of  a  strolling  player  and 
musician.  Into  this  life,  irregular,  unhealthful  for 
mind  and  body,  he  dragged  his  unwilling  family,  to 
the  disgust  and  shame  of  his  wife,  and  the  detriment 
of  his  children. 

None  of  the  family  displayed  remarkable  talents, 
or  gave  any  promise  of  realizing  Franz  Anton's 
dream  of  giving  to  the  world  another  musical  genius 
like  Mozart,  except  Carl  Maria.  In  this  boy,  all 
the  artistic  life  of  the  family  for  long  generations 


CARL  MARIA  VON  WEBER. 


seems  to  have  been  gathered  up  and  to  have 
reached  its  culmination.  Franz  Anton,  wild,  way- 
ward, impulsive,  reckless,  incapable  of  steadiness 
of  purpose  or  of  sustained  thinking,  was  by  no 
means  a  desirable  guide  and  tutor  for  a  young  artist, 
and  all  the  surroundings  of  the  boy's  childhood  and 
early  youth  were  such  as  tended  toward  mental  dis- 
sipation. All  through  his  life,  Weber  felt  the  effects 
of  these  disadvantages,  in  his  incapacity  for  mental 
concentration  and  sustained  intellectual  exertion, 
and  was  obliged,  in  middle  life,  to  subject  himself  to 
the  severest  discipline  in  order  to  counteract,  so  far 
as  might  be,  the  defects  of  his  early  training.  He 
was  a  weak,  nervous  child,  with  a  disease  of  the 
thigh  bone  which  caused  him  to  limp  and  withdrew 
him  in  great  measure  from  the  sports  of  his  play- 
mates. Sensitive  and  impressible,  his  father's  per- 
sistent and  injudicious  attempts  to  force  him  to 
become  a  youthful  prodigy,  excited  in  him  only  dis- 
gust with  art,  and  for  a  long  time  he  accomplished 
very  little.  Such  interest  as  he  acquired  in  music 
came  not  through  his  father's  ill-judged  exertions, 
but  mainly  through  the  sound,  discreet  and  sympa- 
thetic instruction  of  two  men,  J.  P.  Henschkel,  of 
Hildburghausen,  and  Michael  Haydn,  of  Salzburg. 
In  both  these  places  the  wandering  family  stopped 
long  enough  to  give  the  poor  child  some  little 
chance  of  proper  instruction.  But  one  benefit  he 
did  undoubtedly  derive  from  his  father's  profession. 
From  his  earliest  childhood  he  was  familiar  with 
theatrical  representations  and  stage  effects,  and  this 


HISTORY  OF  PIANOFORTE  MUSIC. 


familiarity  was  afterwards  of  incalculable  advantage 
to  him  as  an  operatic  composer. 

In  spite  of  the  irregularities  of  his  instruction,  he 
made  considerable  progress  in  piano-playing,  and 
finally  attained  distinction  as  a  brilliant  and  effect- 
ive concert  pianist.  This  result,  as  well  as  the  more 
solid  development  of  his  skill  and  his  gifts  as  a 
composer,  was  attained  in  Vienna,  where  he  lived 
from  his  fourteenth  until  his  eighteenth  year.  He 
became  a  pupil  of  the  Abbe  Vogler,  then  a  highly 
esteemed  composer  and  teacher,  a  man  of  some 
really  solid  attainments  and  ability  and  of  admira- 
ble tact.  He  had,  indeed,  faults  which  resembled 
those  of  Carl's  father.  He  was  vain  and  given  to 
show,  ready  to  buy  a  brilliant  and  seeming  success 
with  showy  and  superficial  accomplishments.  It  is 
no  wonder  that  the  boy  should  have  been  injured 
by  the  commanding  influence  of  two  such  men.  His 
vanity  and  over-sensitiveness  to  praise  were  con- 
tinually fostered,  and  the  damage  would  have  been 
worse  if  Franz  Anton's  foolish  bragging  and  over- 
weening vanity  had  not  been  so  boundless  that  the 
lad  was  fairly  disgusted,  and  experienced  something 
of  a  wholesome  reaction  against  it. 

But  these  were  not  the  only  dangers  which  beset 
the  gifted  youth.  Vienna  was  a  gay,  dissipated, 
pleasure-loving  capital.  Carl's  mother  was  dead, 
and  there  was  little  to  restrain  him  from  yielding  to 
temptations  which  inevitably  allured  him  on  all 
sides.  His  most  intimate  friend  was  a  young  ex-of- 
ficer named  Gaensbacher,  who  was  also  studying 


CARL  MARIA  VON  WEBER. 


under  the  Abbe  Vogler,  an  enthusiastic  lover  and 
student  of  music,  but  given  to  all  sorts  of  illicit 
indulgences.  With  him  and  his  set  young  Carl 
lived  a  fast,  irregular  life,  quaffing  eagerly  the  cup 
of  pleasure.  Nevertheless,  he  did  a  good  deal  of 
real  work,  and  profited  not  a  little  by  his  instruction 
as  well  as  by  the  multitudinous  impressions  he 
received  in  a  city  which  had  been  for  more  than 
fifty  years  the  musical  capital  of  Europe,  where 
Mozart  had  lived  and  worked,  where  Haydn  still 
dwelt  in  his  old  age,  and  where  Beethoven  was  mak- 
ing a  most  profound  impression. 

Before  he  was  quite  eighteen  years  old,  he  was 
called,  on  the  recommendation  of  the  Abbe  Vogler, 
to  be  conductor  of  the  opera  in  Breslau.  He 
showed  marked  talent  in  his  new  position  of  respon- 
sibility, and  gained  invaluable  experience.  But  he 
also  showed  conceit  enough  to  rouse  a  great  deal  of 
enmity,  and  he  continued  the  career  of  dissipation 
he  had  begun  in  Vienna.  At  the  end  of  two  years 
he  was  overwhelmed  with  debt,  and  besides  had  so 
much  opposition  to  encounter  in  his  work  that  he 
abandoned  his  post  in  disgust. 

This  was  in  1806,  and  the  armies  of  Napoleon 
were  already  overrunning  the  country.  Murder, 
rapine,  outrages  of  all  sorts  were  daily  perpetrated, 
the  public  mind  became  wholly  occupied  with  the 
war,  and  artists  fared  hard.  Weber  was,  for  a  time, 
the  guest  of  Prince  Eugene,  of  Wuertemberg,  at 
Carlsruhe,  but  was  driven  from  this  asylum  by  the 
disorders  of  the  time.    Prince  Eugene  obtained  for 


io6 


HISTORY  OF  PIANOFORTE  MUSIC. 


him  the  position  of  private  secretary  to  his  brother, 
Duke  Ludwig,  at  Stuttgart,  where  still  another 
brother,  Friedrich,  was  reigning  King.  Friedrich 
was  a  coarse,  passionate  man,  violent  in  his  temper 
and  manners,  and,  as  a  ruler,  arbitrary  and  tyranni- 
cal ;  his  brother,  Weber's  patron,  was  not  only  weak 
and  self-indulgent,  but  also  dissolute  and  reckless  ; 
the  whole  court  and  society  in  which  the  young  man 
was  thrown  was  utterly  corrupt  and  venal,  and 
wholly  given  up  to  the  coarsest  immorality.  It  is 
not  to  be  wondered  at  that  a  youth  of  his  antece- 
dents should  have  plunged  even  deeper  than  ever 
before  into  dissipation  and  debauchery.  He  finished 
sowing  his  wild  oats  in  Stuttgart,  and  began  reaping 
the  very  disagreeable  crop  which  came  of  them. 

But  there  were  redeeming  traits  in  the  young 
man,  and  redeeming  influences  in  Stuttgart  society. 
There  were  excellent  families  there,  and  some  liter- 
ary men  and  artists,  who  exercised  a  wholesome  and 
saving  influence  on  Carl  Maria.  The  man  whose 
sterling  worth  and  devoted  friendship  was  of  most 
value  to  him  was  Franz  Danzi,  conductor  of  the 
Royal  Opera,  a  sound  musician,  an  admirable  man, 
full  of  high  ideals,  with  penetration  enough  to  see 
what  latent  possibilities  lay  in  the  young  composer, 
with  a  strong  desire  to  develop  them,  and  with  tact 
enough  to  win  Weber's  confidence  and  affection, 
though  he  was  more  than  double  his  age.  One  of 
his  great  maxims  was,  "  To  be  a  true  artist,  you 
must  be  a  true  man  ;"  and  he  exerted  all  his  influ- 
ence to  stem  the  tide  of  sinful  indulgences  on  which 


CARL  MARIA  VON  WEBER. 


his  weak  young  friend  was  floating,  to  call  forth  his  Chap,  viii. 
latent  moral  sense,  to  awaken  his  conscience,  his 
desire   for    intellectual    attainments    and  artistic 
achievements  ;  in  short,  to  make  of  him  such  a  man 
and  artist  as  he  knew  him  to  be  capable  of  becoming. 

But  these  lessons  were  not  to  have  their  full  effect  u^eber^s 
until  Weber  had  had  the  sharp  schooling  of  adver-  ment. 
sity.  The  end  came  in  the  early  part  of  1810.  The 
young  private  secretary  had  long  been  under  the 
King's  displeasure  ;  he  was  now  arrested,  thrown 
into  prison,  and  soon  banished  from  Wuertemberg, 
— turned  out  in  poverty,  to  get  on  as  best  he  could. 
Henceforth  he  became  a  man  ;  with  numerous  weak- 
nesses, indeed,  heavily  handicapped  by  his  inherited 
traits  and  tendencies  and  by  his  youthful  follies  ; 
but  conscious  of  both  his  weakness  and  his  strength, 
and  fully  determined  to  make  the  most  of  himself 
for  the  rest  of  his  life. 

The  next  three  years  he  spent  in  wandering  about 
through  Germany  and  Switzerland,  supporting  him- 
self by  giving  concerts,  by  the  sale  of  his  composi- 
tions, and  by  critical  work.    He  had  studied  philos-  „ 

.  ^  Hts  work 

ophy  and  aesthetics  m  Vienna,  had  shown  intellect-  as  critic. 
ual  powers  of  a  high  order,  decided  ability  as  a 
critic,  and  had  developed  an  effective  literary  style. 
His  critical  writings  were  sought  by  the  best  musical 
journals  of  Germany,  and  he  wrote  a  great  deal, 
especially  during  his  stay  in  Berlin  and  in  Leipsic. 
His  operas  Sylvana  "  and  "Abu  Hassan,"  as  well 
as  his  cantata  "The  First  Tone,"  had  already  been 
composed  at  Stuttgart,  and  these  were  now  success- 


io8 


HISTORY  OF  PIANOFORTE  MUSIC. 


fully  given  in  many  places.  His  songs  also  brought 
him  reputation  and  money.  His  piano-playing 
awakened  great  admiration.  It  was  brilliant  and 
effective,  characterized  by  perfect  mastery  of  the 
instrument,  by  extraordinary  execution,  and  espe- 
cially in  improvisation  he  showed  such  command  of 
the  resources  of  harmony  and  such  power  of  express- 
ing his  feelings,  that  he  is  said  to  have  produced  "  a 
marvellous  effect,  such  as  had  never  been  hitherto 
known  in  the  art  of  piano-playing."*  This  naturally 
led  to  the  sale  of  his  pianoforte  compositions. 

During  his  wanderings  he  received  a  great  variety 
of  impressions  of  men  and  things,  associated  with 
many  artists,  poets  and  intellectual  men  of  high 
standing,  as  well  as  with  persons  of  the  highest 
social  rank,  acquired  wide  experience  of  music,  liter- 
ature and  life,  worked  hard  to  improve  himself  as 
composer  and  man,  and  gained  every  way  in  char- 
acter, in  knowledge,  in  manysidedness,  in  concen- 
tration and  in  command  of  his  own  powers. 

Early  in  1813  he  accepted  the  conductorship  of 
the  opera  at  Prague,  and  was  once  more  settled 
for  some  time.  His  work  in  this  position  lasted  till 
October,  1816,  somewhat  more  than  three  years  and 
a  half.  It  was  a  time  of  hard  work,  of  struggle  and 
discipline,  of  weakness,  but  also  of  growth  in  self- 
mastery.  Weber's  work  as  a  conductor  was  efficient 
and  successful.  His  production  seems  to  have  been 
mainly  limited  to  his  patriotic  songs,  which  excited 


*See  letter  of  his  friend  Lichtenstein,  quoted  in  Life  of  Weber,  by  his 
son,  Vol.  I,  pages  206-7. 


CARL  MARIA  VON  WEBER. 


109 


the  greatest  enthusiasm  throughout  Germany.  To 
these  must  be  added  his  important  cantata,  "  Battle 
and  Victory,"  written  in  celebration  of  the  over- 
throw of  Napoleon  at  Waterloo. 

On  Christmas  day,  18 16,  he  received  the  appoint- 
ment of  conductor  to  his  majesty  the  King  of  Sax- 
ony, and  thenceforth  the  remaining  ten  years  of  his 
life  were  to  be  devoted  to  the  establishment  of  Ger- 
man opera  at  Dresden.  This  portion  of  his  life 
must  be  here  sketched  in  the  briefest  possible  man- 
ner. Full  details  are  to  be  found  in  Weber's  Life, 
by  his  son,  already  referred  to. 

The  three  great  romantic  operas  which  made 
Weber's  name  immortal  were  composed  during  his 
life  in  Dresden.  "  Der  Freischuetz  "  was  produced 
for  his  own  theatre  in  1820,  but  was  first  given  suc- 
cessfully in  Berlin  ;  "  Euryanthe  "  was  written  for 
Vienna  in  1822;  and  "  Oberon "  for  London  in 
1825.  To  these  must  be  added  his  music  to  "  Pre- 
ciosa,"  also  v/ritten  in  1820.  He  went  to  London 
to  superintend  the  performances  of  "  Oberon,"  and 
died  there  of  consumption,  January  4,  1826. 

Weber's  place  in  musical  history  depends  mainly 
on  his  three  great  operas  mentioned  above.  They 
are  original  in  motive  and  treatment,  and  also  in 
melody,  form  and  orchestral  effects.  They  are  all 
romantic  in  the  strictest  sense  of  the  word. 

The  most  popular  of  the  three  is  "  Der  Frei- 
schuetz :"  the  other  two,  though  they  contain  many 
beauties,  and  are  acknowledged  to  be  an  advance, 
in  some  important  respects,  on  the  first,  have  never 


I  lO 


HISTORY  OF  PIANOFORTE  MUSIC. 


maintained  their  place  on  the  stage,  whereas  the 
interest  in  Der  Freischuetz  "  seems  to  be  perman- 
ent, at  least  in  Germany.  It  is  only  natural  that 
its  popularity  should  be  greater  in  Weber's  native 
country  than  elsewhere,  for  it  deals  with  themes 
peculiarly  German,  with  popular  German  legends 
and  superstitions,  familiar  alike  to  noble,  burgher  and 
peasant.  The  interest  in  the  supernatural  and  the 
fantastic,  which  constitute  so  large  a  portion  of  the 
elements  of  this  opera,  is  indeed  universal  ;  but  the 
mold  in  which  these  elements  are  cast  is  national. 
This  applies  both  to  the  text  and  to  Weber's  beautiful 
and  characteristic  musical  setting.  The  whole  is  the 
counterpart,  in  the  domain  of  opera,  of  the  Romantic 
literature  then  in  the  full  vigor  of  its  lusty  youth. 
It  was,  of  course,  natural  that  the  Romantic  move- 
ment in  music  should  come  to  its  first  development 
in  the  domain  of  opera,  and  that  this  epoch  should 
be  followed  rather  than  preceded  or  accompanied 
by  the  period  of  romanticism  in  instrumental  music  ; 
for,  since  this  movement  consisted  essentially  in  the 
expression  of  romantic  feelings  in  tones,  the  first 
suggestion  of  this  would  naturally  come  from  a 
romantic  text.  Successful  efforts  to  set  such  texts 
to  appropriate  music  would  naturally  be  followed  by 
attempts  to  embody  similar  feelings  in  purely  instru- 
mental forms. 

This  was  the  actual  course  of  musical  history.  So 
that,  if  Weber  had  written  no  pianoforte  music,  his 
creative  activity  in  the  field  of  Romantic  Opera 
would  have  prepared  the  way  for  the  purely  roman- 


CARL  MARIA  VON  WEBER. 


Ill 


tic  composers  for  the  pianoforte.  But  the  romantic 
ideas  and  feelings  which  had  become  the  most  pow- 
erful element  in  the  intellectual  and  spiritual  life  of 
the  time  could  not  fail  to  produce  a  marked  effect 
on  all  intellectual  activity  in  whatsoever  field. 

We  have  seen  that  this  romantic  tendency  was 
reproduced  in  Beethoven's  instrumental  works,  and 
traces  of  it  are  also  to  be  found  in  Weber's  piano- 
forte compositions.  In  most  of  these,  however,  the 
romantic  element  appears  at  its  worst  and  shallow- 
est. It  savors  of  sacrilege  to  mention  Weber's  con- 
certos and  sonatas  in  the  same  breath  with  the  pro- 
foundly significant  and  essentially  noble  Beethoven 
works.  Most  of  Weber's  pianoforte  pieces  were 
written  in  his  youth  and  early  manhood,  in  the  days 
when  he  had  no  feelings  or  purposes  which  could 
find  noble  expression  in  elevated  music  ;  when  he 
was  simply  a  brilliant,  showy  pianist,  and  when  the 
expression  of  feeling  in  his  playing  so  highly  prized 
by  his  contemporaries  was,  in  all  probability,  the 
shallow  sentimentality  of  a  weak-nerved,  over-sensi- 
tive artist  excited  by  gay  or  melancholy  surround- 
ings. At  least,  it  is  difficult  to  find  much  now  in 
his  pianoforte  works  which  can  account  for  the 
enthusiasm  they  excited  in  the  first  decade  of  the 
century.  The  influence  of  romantic  ideas  shows 
itself  much  less  in  the  emotional  content  of  them 
than  in  neglect  or  contempt  of  the  principles  of 
classical  form,  in  a  disregard  of  the  intellectual 
requirements  of  the  old  ideals,  and  in  a  certain 
straining  after  effect  and  originality.     These  faults 


Chap.  VIII. 


The 

rojii  antic 
in  ]Veber  s 
piano/o7-te 
works. 


.Shallow- 
ness of  his 
early 
proditc- 
tio7is 


Ephemeral 
character 
of  h  is 
piatio/orte 
works. 


112 


HISTORY  OF  PIANOFORTE  MUSIC. 


are  fatal,  and  Weber's  pianoforte  pieces  are  nowa- 
days, for  the  most  part,  deservedly  neglected. 

The  most  prominent  exception  to  the  general  rule 
is  his  "  Invitation  to  Waltz,"  a  master-piece  in  its 
originality  of  conception,  its  poetic  beauty,  its  fire, 
vigor,  refinement  and  delicacy,  and  in  its  force  and 
truthfulness  of  characterization.  This  is,  indeed,  a 
romantic  work,  in  the  truest  sense.  It  is  not  only 
far  in  advance  of  any  other  pianoforte  piece  by  its 
author,  but  represents  a  certain  phase  of  the  Roman- 
tic movement  more  perfectly  than  any  other  work 
of  the  time.  Its  excellence  has  achieved  for  it  a 
great  and  widespread  popularity  which  bids  fair  to 
be  lasting,  either  in  its  original  form,  in  Berlioz's 
orchestral  transcription,  or  in  Carl  Tausig's  brilliant 
show-piece,  "arrangement"  of  it,  a  clever  piece  of 
virtuoso  work  which  certainly  has  decided  beauties 
of  its  own,  though  some  of  its  most  brilliant  effects 
are  obtained  by  the  sacrifice  of  the  finest  poetic 
qualities  of  Weber's  original  conception.  Besides 
this,  the  Rondo  of  his  Sonata  in  C,  known  under 
the  name  "  Perpetual  Motion,"  still  excites  a  good 
deal  of  interest,  his  "  Concert  Stueck  "  has  not  yet 
wholly  disappeared  from  the  repertoire  of  pianists, 
and  a  few  other  pieces  are  played  more  or  less  and 
are  used,  not  always  wisely,  for  teaching  purposes. 

The  life  of  Franz  Peter  Schubert,  the  greatest 
creative  composer  among  Beethoven's  contempor- 
aries, was  a  short  and  uneventful  one.  He  was  the 
son  of  a  poor  parish  schoolmaster,  and  was  born  in 
Vienna,  January  31,  1797.     He  showed  talent  for 


F.  P.  SCHUBERT. 


113 


music  in  his  earliest  childhood,  and  received  lessons 
in  singing  and  on  the  violin  and  the  pianoforte. 
His  teachers  soon  found  that  his  intuitive  percep- 
tions had  anticipated  their  instructions.  In  1808  he 
was  admitted  as  a  singer  into  the  choir  of  the  Impe- 
rial Chapel.  This  appointment  carried  with  it  the 
right  to  an  education  in  the  "  Stadt  Convict,"  an 
institution  where  music  was  treated  as  an  important 
branch  of  study.  His  evident  ability  soon  brought 
him  forward  to  the  place  of  leader  of  the  school 
orchestra,  and  here  he  studied  the  best  music  of  the 
day,  the  symphonies  of  Haydn,  Mozart  and  Beetho- 
ven, and  became  thoroughly  familiar  with  the 
resources  of  the  orchestra. 

He  soon  felt  the  creative  impulse,  and  began  to 
compose  numerous  quartets,  quintets,  songs,  piano- 
forte pieces,  and  finally  a  symphony.  He  tried  his 
hand  at  opera  also,  but  in  this  field  he  was  never  suc- 
cessful. His  first  symphony  is  dated  October  18, 
1 81 3,  and  was  performed  by  the  school  orchestra. 

Soon  after  this  his  voice  changed,  and  he  had  to 
leave  the  Imperial  Chapel.  He  could  have  had  the 
privilege  of  pursuing  his  school  studies  for  some 
time  longer,  but  his  whole  mind  was  devoted  to 
music,  and  he  was  indifferent  to  all  other  intellect- 
ual pursuits.  He  did,  indeed,  become  thoroughly 
acquainted  with  the  whole  range  of  German  poetry, 
but  he  seems  to  have  made  it  merely  tributary  to  his 
musical  creative  impulses,  and  always  remained 
exclusively  a  musician.  When  he  left  school  after 
his  five  years  of  study  he  was  forced  to  teach  with 


114 


HISTORY  OF  PIANOFORTE  MUSIC 


his  father  in  order  to  earn  his  bread.  This  occupa- 
tion he  found  thoroughly  distasteful,  and  the  three 
years  he  passed  in  it  were  years  of  drudgery,  only 
relieved  by  constant  creative  activity.  He  honestly 
and  conscienciously  fulfilled  his  duties  as  a  teacher, 
but  outside  of  these  he  devoted  himself  to  composi- 
tion with  such  zeal  and  industry  that  these  years 
were  among  the  most  prolific  of  his  life. 

Nor,  youth  as  he  was,  were  all  the  compositions 
of  this  time  unimportant.  Two  of  his  greatest  songs, 
**The  Erlking"and  ''The  Wanderer,"  belong  to 
the  year  1816,  and  two  symphonies,  one  in  B  flat 
and  the  "  Tragic  "  in  C  minor,  both  of  which  have 
won  a  high  reputation  among  those  who  have  heard 
them.  He  discontinued  his  work  as  a  school 
teacher  during  his  twentieth  year,  and  thenceforth 
he  earned  a  scanty  livelihood  by  teaching  music  and 
by  the  sale  of  his  compositions.  He  made  various 
applications  for  official  posts  as  teacher  or  con- 
ductor, but  never  obtained  one  of  them  ;  he  could 
find  no  publisher  for  the  great  majority  of  his 
works  ;  very  few  of  his  songs  were  sung  and  only  a 
small  portion  of  his  instrumental  compositions  were 
ever  performed  during  his  life  time  ;  he  lived 
obscure  and  neglected  and  died  in  poverty,  October 
19,  1828. 

Such  is  the  brief  record  of  the  life  of  a  composer, 

His 

spontaneity  j  who,  if  he  lacked  some  of  the  elements  of  greatness 
^rfative     \  whlch  go  to  make  up  a  genius  of  the  first  rank,  was, 
power.      j  j^gygj.|-|-^gigss,  ouc  of  the  most  spontaneously  creative 
minds  known  in  human  history.    His  imagination 


F.  P.  SCHUBERT. 


"5 


produced  music  as  a  tropical  forest  produces  vege- 
tation,— it  was  a  soil  of  boundless  fertility,  crowded 
with  germs  which  constantly  sprang  into  marvel- 
lously luxuriant  growth  under  the  influence  of  tropi- 
cal heat  and  moisture.  The  list  of  his  works*  is 
something  enormous,  and  includes  not  only  songs 
and  short  pieces,  but  masses  and  operas,  nine  sym- 
phonies, the  last  of  which  is  one  of  the  longest  ever 
written. 

The  quality  of  these  works  are  quite  as  remarkable 
as  their  quantity.  The  two  best  known  symphonies, 
the  ninth  in  C  major  and  the  Unfinished  in  B  minor, 
are  among  the  most  beautiful,  graceful,  delicate  and 
refined  compositions '^ever  written  for  the  orchestra. 
The  ideas  are  indeed  not  forceful,  but  neither  are 
they  weak  ;  they  lack  the  vitality  of  Beethoven,  but 
their  essentially  feminine  quality  is  positive,  not  neg- 
ative. If  they  have  not  the  grandeur,  the  uplifting, 
inspiring  power  of  Schubert's  greatest  contemporary, 
they  have  the  enduring  charm  of  grace,  tenderness, 
delicacy,  refined  beauty  and  an  emotional  signifi- 
cance the  complement  of  Beethoven's  stormy  moods. 
Beethoven  cUmbed  rugged  mountain  steeps,  toiling 
painfully  from  rock  to  rock,  with  bleeding  hands 
and  lacerated  knees,  facing  storm  and  hail,  thunder 
and  lightning,  struggling  indomitably  against  oppos- 
ing powers  of  earth  and  air,  his  face  turned  ever 
upward  to  the  heavenly  beauty  toward  which  he 
strove,  whose  beatific  vision  was  at  once  his  inspiration 


*See  H.  F.  Frost's  biography  of  Schubert,  Appendix.  New  York,  Scrib- 
ner  &  Welford. 


it6 


HISTORY  OF  PIANOFORTE  MUSIC. 


and  his  soul's  peace.  Schubert's  imagination  dwelt 
below  in  the  luxuriant  valley,  full  of  flowers,  of  birds 
and  of  sunshine,  in  the  repose  of  heaven's  own  light 
and  air,  singing  and  making  melody  with  the  spon- 
taneity and  ecstatic  delight  of  a  bird  in  a  June 
meadow. 

If  he  delights  and  surprises  us  by  the  fertility  of 
his  imagination  and  his  wealth  of  beautiful  and  sig- 
nificant ideas,  he  charms  us  no  less  by  the  inexhaust- 
ible variety  of  his  treatment  of  them.  The  C  major 
symphony  is  indeed  prolix,  but  its  length  is,  as 
Schumann  said,  "  heavenly  ;"  no  one  not  insensible 
to  its  subtle  charm  can  wish  for  a  moment  that 
Schubert  had  applied  the  pruning  knife  to  its  beau- 
tiful luxuriance.  There  is  not  a  spray  or  a  twig  we 
would  willingly  sacrifice. 

But  beautiful  as  are  his  symphonies,  and  great  as 
was  the  treasure  he  bequeathed  to  the  world  in  his 
instrumental  works,  his  most  important  contribution 
to  musical  progress  is  to  be  found  in  his  songs,  of 
which  he  wrote  some  six  hundred,  and  these  more 
than  anything  else  determine  his  place  in  musical 
history.  His  genius  v/as  essentially  lyric  and  roman- 
tic ; — romantic  in  that  he  loved  to  deal  with 
romantic  themes,  and  romantic  also  in  his  intuitive 
sense  of  fitness  in  characterization,  and  in  his  innate 
power  of  characteristic  invention.  What  Weber  did 
for  the  opera  Schubert  did  for  the  song.  He  was 
the  first  creator  of  music  adapted  to  express  and 
intensify  all  the  varying  and  contrasted  phases  of 
emotion  suggested  by  the  best  lyric  poems  in  Ger- 


F.  P.  SCHUBERT. 


117 


man,  and  some  of  the  best  in  English,  literature. 
With  him  the  song  ceased  to  be  merely  a  ballad 
form,  corresponding  in  a  merely  general  way  with 
the  emotional  content  of  the  words,  and  became  a 
plastic,  subtle,  romantic  medium  for  the  most  com- 
plete emotional  expression.  If  in  his  instrumental 
compositions  he  loved  to  dwell  on  the  gentle,  the 
tender,  dealing  in  quiet,  pensive,  reposeful  moods, 
he  could  now  and  then  deal  with  a  vigorous,  soul- 
stirring  text  with  no  lack  of  breadth,  power  or  inten- 
sity, as,  for  example,  in  his  "  Erl-King."  Neverthe- 
less, these  cases  are  comparatively  few,  and  do  not 
represent  the  natural  and  habitual  cast  of  his  mind. 
This  is  shown  more  characteristically  in  his  "  Dying 
Strains,"  and  his  "  Maid  of  the  Mill." 

In  the  domain  of  pianoforte  music,  Schubert  has 
left  us  a  considerable  body  of  compositions,  beauti- 
ful, significant,  characterized  by  qualities  essentially 
romantic,  and  pointing  distinctly  toward  the  new 
development  which  was  to  follow  him  directly.  In 
these  works  there  are  three  points  in  which  his 
romanticism  reveals  itself,  i.  In  the  production  of 
a  large  number  of  pieces  which,  though  founded  on 
the  essential  principles  of  form  which  had  been  once 
for  all  established,  did  not  strictly  conform  to  the 
plan  of  the  sonata.  The  sonata  form  no  longer 
fully  met  his  needs  as  a  medium  of  expression. 
With  preceding  composers  the  sonata  had  been  the 
natural  form  in  which  their  musical  ideas  took 
shape.  Their  strivings  were  in  the  direction  of  the 
completion  of  that  form,  and  when  they  did  not 


ii8 


HISTORY  OF  PIANOFORTE  MUSIC. 


Chap.  VIII. 


SchuberVt 
require- 
ments in 
Form. 


His  lack  of 
classical 
clearness 
and 

symmetry. 


write  whole  sonatas  they  still  cast  their  ideas  in 
Rondo  form,  or  in  Dance  form,  both  of  which 
belonged  to  the  sonata  as  components.  Only  rarely 
did  they  have  something  to  say  which  could  not  find 
embodiment  in  these  forms.  The  C  minor  Fantasia 
of  Mozart  is  a  conspicuous  example  of  the  excep- 
tions to  the  rule. 

Beethoven's  practice  remained  the  same,  except 
that  he  modified  the  sonata  form  itself  to  suit  the 
requirements  of  his  enlarged  content.  But  Schu- 
bert, while  he  continued  to  write  sonatas  and  sym- 
phonies which  differed  from  classical  models,  so  far 
as  form  was  concerned,  only  in  being  more  diffuse 
and  prolix,  seems  to  have  had  within  him,  probably 
without  philosophizing  at  all  on  the  subject,  emo- 
tions he  could  not  help  expressing  in  music,  which 
would  hardly  fit  with  exactness  either  the  sonata  or 
any  of  its  component  movements.  So  he  wrote 
"Impromptus,"  "  Momens  Musicales,"  and  "Fan- 
tasias," and  wrote  so  many  of  them  that  instead  of 
being  a  mere  incident  of  his  work  as  a  composer 
they  occupied  an  important  part  of  his  creative 
activity. 

2.  The  second  mark  of  his  romanticism  is  the 
absence  of  the  classical  characteristics  of  compact, 
clearness  of  form,  of  concentration  and  symmetry. 
His  sonatas  are  all  rambling  and  diffuse.  His 
imagination  was  extremely  active,  and  not  only  con- 
stantly generated  new  ideas,  but  continually  com- 
bined and  contrasted  them  in  an  infinite  variety  of 
ways,  rambling  on  and  on  till  there  seemed  to  be  no 


F.  P.  SCHUBERT. 


119 


more  limit  to  the  ever-changing  views  than  to  those  chap.  viii. 
of  a  kaleidoscope.  And  every  change  revealed  new 
beauties  ;  every  new  light  in  which  his  ideas  were  set 
showed  more  and  more  clearly  the  loveliness  of  them  ; 
each  new  effect  seemed  more  and  more  charming ; 
and,  as  his  fertility  was  inexhaustible  and  he  seemed 
to  be  enamored  of  the  grace  and  beauty  of  his  con- 
ceptions and  never  to  tire  of  turning  them  over  and 
over,  his  productions  were  nearly  always  spun  out 
to  such  lengths  that  he  wholly  lost  sight  of  classical 
proportions.  This  enthusiasm,  this  fond  dwelling 
upon  his  conceptions  from  the  love  of  them,  this 
giving  himself  up  unreservedly  to  the  pleasure  of 
following  his  own  spontaneous  impulses,  regardless 
of  classical  rules  or  of  strict  intellectual  require- 
ments of  any  sort,  is  an  essentially  romantic  ten- 
dency. 

Finally,  the  emotional  content  of  his  compositions  ^.^ 
is  essentially  romantic.    We  have  already  seen  that  {^^1-1^^^ 
he  occupied  himself  less  with  considerations   of  ^^^entiaiiy 

romantic, 

form  than  did  the  purely  classical  writers.  On  the 
other  hand,  feeling  comes  more  into  the  foreground  ; 
it  is  a  more  prominent  and  important  factor.  His 
sensibility  is  keenly  alive,  is  open  and  sensitive  to 
impressions  ;  the  range  of  feeling  is  wider,  the  emo- 
tional movements  are  more  subtle,  delicate,  and 
refined  ;  there  is  more  complexity  of  feeling  ;  emo- 
tions follow  each  other  more  rapidly,  often  contend 
with  one  another  for  supremacy  ;  the  contrasts  are 
sharper  and  more  sudden.  Besides,  these  feelings 
are  decidedly  romantic  in  character,  though  they 


I20 


HISTORY  OF  PIANOFORTE  MUSIC. 


represent  mainly  the  feminine  side  of  the  romantic 
type.  These  pieces  are  full  of  sentiment,  of  tender- 
ness, of  dreamy  voluptuousness,  occasionally  inter- 
rupted by  episodes  of  a  more  stirring  and  vigorous 
character.  In  short,  all  the  phases  of  feeling  to 
which  Schubert  gave  expression  in  his  songs,  when 
he  consciously  sought  to  connect  them  with  different 
scenes,  situations  and  events,  come  equally  to  their 
embodiment  in  his  instrumental  works,  and  stamp 
them  unmistakably  with  romantic  characteristics. 

In  concluding  this  sketch  of  the  Transition  Period 
between  the  Classic  and  the  Romantic,  and  of  the 
three  great  composers  whose  genius  and  productive 
activity  were  chiefly  instrumental  in  bringing  about 
the  inevitable  change,  a  brief  summing-up  must 
suffice. 

Be  it  remembered  that  the  classical  ideal  was  an 
objective  ont ;  that  is,  the  composer's  mind  was  occu- 
pied with  an  object  outside  of  himself  ;  with  his 
ideal  conception,  and  with  the  work  of  embodying 
it.  Feeling,  which  is  the  innermost  content  of 
music,  is  subjective;  is  an  internal  experience.  When 
the  mind  of  the  composer  is  mainly  occupied  with 
feeling,  the  intellectual  side  of  his  work  becomes 
less  prominent.  The  intellectual  element  becomes 
then  only  a  means  for  the  expression  of  the  feeling. 

In  the  Romantic  writers,  this  predominance  of 
feeling  over  the  intellectual   side  of  composition 
of  content  over  form,  is  a  prominent  feature.  The 
Romantic  movement  was  the  assertion  of  individual- 
ism in  Art,  of  the  importance  of  the  private  feelings 


F.  P.  SCHUBERT. 


121 


of  the  composer  and  their  right  to  truthful  and  vivid 
expression  as  against  the  classical  tendency  to  thrust 
them  into  the  background,  to  give  them  expression 
only  incidentally  and  unconsciously,  while  the  men- 
tal activity  was  taken  up  with  the  realization  of  an 
ideal  conceived  of  as  objective,  as  in  a  sense  outside 
of  and  foreign  to  the  composer.  Be  it  remembered, 
further,  that  the  change  from  the  predominance  of 
the  classical  to  the  Romantic  ideal  was  not  sudden  ; 
it  was  a  gradual  development. 

The  first  interest  of  men  in  music  was  that  of  sen- 
suous gratification,  the  pleasure  derived  from  sweet 
sounds,  and  from  the  excitement  of  rhythmical  repe- 
titions of  sounds.  Then  came  the  intellectual 
interest  and  pleasure  of  arranging  sounds  in  succes- 
sions and  combinations,  the  development  of  the 
technic  of  composition,  of  Counterpoint,  Harmony 
and  Form.  This  went  on,  hand  in  hand  with  the 
development  of  vocal  and  instrumental  technics, 
and  the  invention  and  improvement  of  instruments. 
The  clear  perception  of  the  relation  of  music  to 
emotion  is  a  later  stage  of  development.  It  was 
felt  at  first  dimly,  more  especially  in  purely  instru- 
mental music.  No  doubt,  from  the  very  beginning  of 
song,  the  congruity  or  incongruity  of  words  and 
music  were  instinctively  felt ;  this  relation  gradually 
impressed  itself  more  and  more  on  the  minds  of 
composers  and  connoisseurs,  until  finally  the  emo- 
tional significance  of  music  forced  itself  into  prom- 
inence, asserted  its  claims  to  recognition  and  deter- 


6 


122 


HISTORY  OF  PIANOFORTE  MUSIC. 


mined  the  downfall  of  the  classical  and  the  predom- 
inance of  the  Romantic  ideal. 

In  Weber,  we  see  this  process  carried  to  its  com- 
pletion in  his  operas,  and  exerting  a  marked  influ- 
ence on  his  pianoforte  compositions.  In  Schubert, 
the  same  tendency  reaches  its  culmination  in  his 
songs,  with  a  similar  effect  on  his  instrumental  writ- 
ing. Beethoven  is,  in  a  way,  the  forerunner, 
although  he  is  the  contemporary  of  both.  He  was 
sixteen  years  older  than  Weber,  and  twenty-seven 
years  older  than  Schubert ;  difference  enough  so  that 
he  prepared  the  way  in  which  they  advanced  beyond 
him.  In  Beethoven's  instrumental  works,  as  well  as 
in  those  of  Schubert  and  Weber,  feeling  assumes 
great  importance,  becomes  much  more  prominent 
than  it  had  ever  been  in  the  older  writers  ;  but  both 
Beethoven  and  Schubert  seem  to  have  been  grop- 
ing their  way  toward  the  Romantic  ideal,  led  indeed 
by  a  sure  instinct,  but  more  or  less  blindly.  Weber, 
in  his  "  Invitation  to  Dance,"  seems  for  once  to  have 
reached  a  clearer  and  more  definite  conception  of 
the  goal  to  be  reached  than  either  of  his  great  con- 
temporaries. 


part  third. 
The  Romantic  Period, 


CHAPTER  IX. 


THE  ROMANTIC  COMPOSERS  FOR  THE  PIANOFORTE. 


Felix  Mendelssohn-Bartholdy,  1809- 
Frederic  Chopin,  1809-1849. 
Robert  Schumann,  1810-1856. 


847. 


Felix  Mendelssohn  Bartholdy  was  born  in 
Hamburg,  February  3,  1809.  His  grandfather  was 
the  distinguished  Jewish  philosopher,  Moses  Men- 
delssohn. His  father,  Abraham,  was  a  wealthy 
banker.  His  mother,  Lea  Salomon-Bartholdy,  was 
also  of  Jewish  blood,  but  was  baptised  with  her  hus- 
band into  the  Protestant  communion,  and  the  name 
of  Bartholdy  was  added  to  the  family  name  of  Men- 
delssohn. Both  the  parents  of  Felix  were  persons 
of  high  character,  superior  intellectual  abilities, 
refined  feelings,  cultivated  tastes,  and  devoted  much 
time  and  pains  to  the  education  of  their  children. 
Felix  had  two  sisters,  Fanny  and  Rebecca,  and  one 
brother,  Paul.  The  family  removed  to  Berlin  before 
Felix  was  three  years  old,  driven  from  Hamburg  by 
the  French  occupation,  and  here  they  continued  to 
reside 

Felix  was  taught  by  the  best  private  tutors,  study- 
ing, besides  the  ordinary  branches,  Greek,  drawing, 
pianoforte,  violin,  harmony  and  composition.  He 
also  received  thorough  physical  training,  and  was  to 
125 


126 


HISTORY  OF  PIANOFORTE  MUSIC. 


the  end  of  his  Hfe  a  proficient  in  all  athletic  exer- 
cises, a  good  swimmer,  rider  and  dancer.  His 
teacher  in  composition  was  Zelter,  a  strict,  pedantic 
contrapuntist  of  the  old  school.  Felix  began  to 
compose  at  twelve  years  of  age,  and  his  productive 
activity  was  incessant.  He  wrote  songs,  pianoforte 
pieces,  chamber  music,  symphonies  for  a  few  instru- 
ments, operettas  ;  and  these  were  all  played  and 
sung  at  the  musical  parties  periodically  given  in  his 
father's  house.  Of  course,  few  or  none  of  these 
works  of  his  apprentice  period  had  permanent  value. 
The  work  which  signalized  his  majority  as  a  com- 
poser was  the  overture  to  Shakspeare's  "  Midsum- 
mer Night's  Dream,"  written  in  the  summer  of  1826, 
when  he  was  seventeen  years  old.  It  was  a  most 
charming,  delightful,  original  and  characteristic 
work,  of  such  excellence  that  he  never  surpassed  it, 
even  in  his  maturity. 

His  general  education  was  not  neglected.  He 
entered  the  university  about  this  time,  attended 
Hegel's  lectures,  among  others,  and  distinguished 
himself  by  some  admirable  translations  of  Terence 
and  Horace  into  German  verse,  in  the  meters  of  the 
originals.  His  production  of  music  went  on  stead- 
ily, stimulated  by  intercourse  with  the  best  musi- 
cians, critics  and  connoisseurs  of  Berlin,  and  others 
who  visited  that  city.  The  Mendelssohn  home  was 
a  delightful  and  hospitable  one,  and  few  musicians 
came  to  the  Prussian  capital  without  visiting  it. 
Felix,  though  sensitive  and  excitable,  was  of  a  thor- 
oughly wholesome,  happy  disposition,  and  in  his 


FELIX  MENDELSSOHN-BARTHOLDY. 


127 


childhood  and  youth,  no  less  than  in  his  mature 
manhood,  he  charmed  all  who  met  him. 

After  the  Midsummer  Night's  Dream  overture 
the  next  important  landmark  in  his  progress  was  the 
overture  to  Goethe's  "  Calm  Sea  and  Prosperous  Voy- 
age," in  which  his  romanticism  showed  itself  no  less 
than  in  his  earlier  great  work.  In  the  Midsummer 
Night's  Dream  he  had  chosen  a  peculiarly  romantic 
subject ;  had  set  himself  the  task  of  reproducing  in 
tones  the  feelings  aroused  by  the  scenes  of  the  play, 
and  had  been  thoroughly  successful.  In  this  second 
overture  he  discarded  the  classic  form,  and  made  of 
the  usual  two  movements  two  companion  pieces 
intended  to  reproduce  the  impressions  made  on  his 
feelings  by  the  sea  in  calm  and  in  storm.  His  suc- 
cess in  this  instance  was  no  less  marked.  This 
overture  was  finished  in  1829. 

Another  important  event  occurred  in  March  of 
this  year,  the  performance  of  Bach's  great  "  Passion 
Music  according  to  St.  Matthew  "  for  the  first  time 
since  the  death  of  its  author.  This  was  Mendels- 
sohn's doing.  He  and  Devrient,  the  actor,  per- 
suaded Zelter  to  allow  its  rehearsal  by  the  Akademie 
of  which  he  was  director,  Mendelssohn  conducted, 
and  the  revival  of  this  great  work  proved  an 
immense  popular  success. 

Abraham  Mendelssohn  now  planned  an  extended 
tour  for  his  son,  with  the  object  not  only  of  improv- 
ing his  mind  in  a  general  way,  but  of  enabling  him 
to  make  friends,  and  find  for  himself  a  satisfactory 
place  in  which  to  settle  and  work.  His  first  visit  was 


128 


HISTORY  OF  PIANOFORTE  MUSIC. 


to  London,  when  he  played  in  public,  produced  some 
of  his  compositions,  and  made  many  friends.  He 
was  cordially  received  by  the  public,  and  found  Lon- 
don so  congenial  that  he  always  felt  a  warm  affec- 
tion for  the  place  and  people,  returning  there  nine 
different  times  in  the  course  of  his  life.  He  trav- 
eled in  England  and  Scotland,  and  received  deep 
and  lasting  impressions  from  some  of  the  scenery. 
The  "  Scotch  "  symphony  and  the  "  Hebrides  Over- 
ture "  are  attempts  to  reproduce  these  impressions 
in  tones.  The  latter  is  due  to  the  effect  produced 
on  his  feelings  by  a  visit  to  Fingal's  cave.  But  nei- 
ther of  these  pieces  was  written  at  the  time  ;  some 
of  the  principal  motives  occurred  to  him  there,  but 
the  impressions  lay  in  his  mind  for  a  long  time 
before  they  matured  and  took  musical  shape.  His 
first  great  symphony  was  the  "  Reformation  Sym- 
phony," written  after  his  return  from  England,  in 
the  winter  of  1829-30,  for  the  tercentenary  festival 
of  the  Augsburg  Confession. 

In  May,  1830,  he  began  a  long  tour  on  the  conti- 
nent, through  Germany,  Switzerland,  Austria,  Italy, 
France,  and  at  last  to  London  again.  It  was  July, 
1832,  before  he  again  reached  Berlin.  These  two 
years  were  a  delightful  time,  and  a  period  of  growth 
and  improvement.  Mendelssohn  enjoyed  the  scen- 
ery, the  society  of  artists  and  literary  men,  sketched 
a  great  deal,  played  much  in  public,  in  short, 
enjoyed  thoroughly  and  with  hearty  zest  whatever 
was  enjoyable  in  his  travels,  but  he  did  not  neglect 
I  composition.    During  this  time  he  wrote  for  the 


FELIX  MENDELSSOHN-BARTHOLD  V. 


129 


pianoforte  the  G  minor  concerto,  the  capriccio  in  B 
minor,  the  first  book  of  the  Songs  without  Words, 
and  some  other  things.  His  correspondence  was 
extensive,  and  his  letters  are  the  most  charming 
productions  imaginable,  and  give  us,  better  than 
anything  else  can,  an  insight  into  the  personal  fas- 
cination he  exercised  on  all  who  came  in  contact 
with  him. 

The  "  Italian  Symphony  "  was  written  at  Berlin 
in  the  winter  of  1832-3.  In  May  of  the  latter  year 
he  conducted  the  Lower  Rhine  Festival  at  Duessel- 
dorf  with  great  success,  and  this  resulted  in  a  three 
years'  engagement  as  director  of  music  there, 
involving  his  responsibility  for  all  the  town  music  in 
the  churches,  the  concerts  and  the  theater.  From 
this  last  he  soon  withdrew,  influencing  the  opera 
selections  and  performances  only  indirectly.  He 
composed  steadily,  writing  many  of  his  smaller 
pieces  and  beginning  his  oratorio  of  St.  Paul  in 
March,  1834. 

In  October,  1835,  he  accepted  the  post  of  con- 
ductor of  the  Gewandhaus  concerts  in  Leipzig,  and 
here  he  spent  nearly  all  the  remainder  of  his  life. 
He  did  indeed  accept  temporarily  an  appointment 
as  Kapellmeister  to  the  King  of  Prussia,  and  as  head 
of  a  new  Academy  of  Music  in  Berlin,  and  even 
removed  there,  bur  unendurable  irritation  and  worry 
came  of  his  relations  with  the  Prussian  court ;  his 
heart  was  in  Leipzig,  he  soon  returned  there,  and 
there  he  lived  and  died.  His  connection  with  Ber- 
lin continued  in  part  after  he  left  the  city.  He  paid 
I 


HISTORY  OF  PIANOFORTE  MUSIC. 


repeated  visits  to  London,  conducted  festivals  in 
Germany,  etc.,  but  his  principal  work  was  done  in 
conducting  the  Gewandhaus  concerts,  in  founding 
and  directing  the  Leipzig  Conservatory  ( in  1843), 
and  in  composition.  St  Paul  was  finished  in  1836, 
and  met  with  immediate  success. 

In  March,  1837,  he  was  married  at  Frankfort  to 
Cecile  Jeanrenaud,  daughter  of  a  Protestant  pastor 
there.  The  union  was  an  extremely  fortunate  one, 
and  conduced  greatly  to  his  happiness  and  useful- 
ness. But  this  useful,  happy  life  was  cut  prema- 
turely short.  He  was  an  indefatigable  worker. 
Incessant  labor,  combined  with  his  excitable  nervous 
temperament,  which  gave  intensity  to  all  emotional 
experiences,  whether  pleasurable  or  painful,  and 
made  them  a  serious  drain  upon  his  vitality,  wore 
him  out  at  the  age  of  thirty-eight.  The  finishing 
stroke  was  given  by  the  strain  of  producing  his  great 
oratorio  "  Elijah,"  written  for  the  Birmingham  Fes- 
tival of  August  25,  1846,  at  which  he  himself  con- 
ducted. He  never  recovered  from  the  prostration 
which  this  occasioned.  Although  he  continued  to 
work,  he  gradually  became  weaker,  suffered  from 
severe  pains  in  the  head,  and  finally  died,  November 
4,  1847.  The  details  of  his  life  are  so  easily  acces- 
sible that  the  foregoing  brief  sketch  may  suffice  for 
this  place.* 

*See  Lampadius'  "  Life  of  Mendelssohn,"  "  The  Mendelssohn  Family," 
by  S.  Hensel,  son  of  Felix's  sister  Fanny,  Devrient's  "  Recollections  of 
Mendelssohn,"  Miller's Letters  and  Recollections  of  Mendelssohn,  Carl 
Mendelssohn's  *' Goethe  and  Mendelssohn,"  Benedict's  "  A  sketch  of  the 
1  Life  and  Works  of  the  late  Felix  Mendelssohn-Bartholdy,  '  two  volumes  of 


Chap.  IX. 


Founds  the 
Leipzig 
Conserv- 
atory of 
Music. 


His 

ma  rriage. 


''Elijah^' 
184b. 


FELIX  MENDELSSOHhr-BARTflOLD  Y. 


The  great  works  here  referred  to  are  by  no 
means  all  he  produced,  but  they  are  perhaps  the 
most  important  and  characteristic.  The  music  to 
Goethe's  "Walpurgis  Night"  ought,  however,  to  be 
mentioned  as  especially  displaying  his  romantic  ten- 
dencies. The  nature  of  the  subject  was  such  that 
any  music  appropriate  to  it  must  necessarily  have 
been  romantic. 

His  pianoforte  music,  of  which  he  wrote  a  large 
quantity,  has,  much  of  it,  an  emotional  content 
closely  analagous  to  that  of  the  "  Midsummer 
Night's  Dream  "  overture  and  the  rest  of  his  com- 
positions for  orchestra.  Such,  for  example,  are  the 
*' Rondo  Capriccioso "  in  E  minor,  op.  14,  the 
Capriccio "  in  B  minor,  the  "  Andante  Cantabile 
and  Presto  Agitato,"  the  "  Serenade  and  Allegro 
giojoso,"  and  many  of  his  "  Songs  Without  Words." 
These  latter  are  thoroughly  characteristic  of  him, 
original  in  form  and  in  content,  though  many  of 
them,  as  well  as  some  of  his  other  compositions,  fall 
below  the  significance  of  the  best,  as  was,  of  course, 
inevitable.  Very  few  of  these  pieces  have  any  title 
to  indicate  the  scenes  or  persons  to  whose  influence 
the  emotions  embodied  in  the  music  were  due,  but 
it  is  known  that  he  was  in  the  habit  of  trying  to 
reproduce  in  tones  the  emotional  impressions 
received  from  his  surroundings.  Of  course,  many 
of  these  impressions  were  not  profound, — he  did 


his  letters,  one  "  From  Italy  to  Switzerland,"  and  the  other  From  1833  to 
1847,"  and  an  excellent  article  in  Grove's  "  Dictionary  of  Music  and  Musi- 
cians."   This  list  is  by  no  means  exhaustive. 


132 


HISTORY  OF  PIANOFORTE  MUSIC. 


not  attempt  to  restrict  his  musical  utterances  to  his 
most  important  feeHngs,  but  often  sought  to  embody 
in  tones  a  content  little  removed  from  elegant  com- 
monplace. Accordingly  much  of  his  music  is  not 
at  all  remarkable  for  its  profound  emotional  signifi- 
cance. But  it  is  always  genuine,  graceful,  refined, 
elegant,  and  everywhere  displays  the  hand  of  a  con- 
summate master. 

Special  attention  ought  to  be  called  to  the  evi- 
dences of  Mendelssohn's  romanticism  displayed  in 
the  forms  assumed  by  his  most  characteristic  utter- 
ances. He  not  only  deliberately  sought  to  empha- 
size the  expression  of  feeling  as  the  goal  of  his 
efforts  in  composition,  but  when  he  succeeded  in 
reproducing  his  emotions  in  tones,  the  completed 
products  were  almost  always  departures  from  the 
classical  models.  The  pieces  on  which  his  reputa- 
tion as  a  pianoforte  composer  depend  are  not  son- 
atas, perhaps  not  even  his  concertos,  but  "  Capric- 
cios,"  "  Fantasias,"  and  "  Songs  without  Words." 

But  it  would  be  a  serious  misapprehension  to  sup- 
pose that  his  form.s  were  often,  or  indeed  ever  crude, 
imperfect,  or  lacking  in  clearness  or  finish.  Roman- 
ticist as  he  undoubtedly  was,  the  romantic  element 
represented  only  one  side  of  his  character.  The 
purest  of  classicists  could  not  have  written  with 
more  perfect  clearness  of  outline,  absolute  precision 
of  detail,  and  perfection  of  finish.  There  is  nothing 
obscure  or  foggy, — there  are  no  half  utterances,  no 
stammering  or  failure.    What  he  had  to  say  he 


FELIX  MENDELSSOHN-BARTHOLDY. 


expressed  with  the  utmost  precision  and  certainty, 
with  a  clearness  and  finish  above  criticism. 

Indeed,  it  may  fairly  be  questioned  whether  the 
very  lucidity  and  polish  of  his  style  does  not  often 
detract  from  the  effectiveness  of  his  pieces.  They 
are  expressive  rather  than  suggestive,  and  express- 
ive, too,  of  a  content  not  always  profound  enough 
to  be  interesting,  still  less  inspiring.  If  we  could 
feel,  as  we  often  do  with  Schumann,  that  much  is 
left  unsaid,  that  the  comparatively  insignificant  con- 
tent here  expressed  with  such  consummate  grace 
and  elegance,  had  evident  relation  to  more  impor- 
tant things  not  far  off,  their  attraction  would  be 
much  enhanced.  The  very  completeness  with  which 
Mendelssohn  gave  utterance  to  so  many  graceful 
insipidities  was  the  cause  of  a  strong  reaction 
against  his  influence  and  tendencies  not  many  years 
after  his  death.  It  is  not  uncommon,  even  now,  to 
hear  his  music  referred  to  somewhat  sneeringly  as 
"  very  gentlemanly  music,"  while  his  fellow  roman- 
ticists are  exalted  at  his  expense.  The  amount  of 
justice  in  this  has  perhaps  already  been  sufficiently 
indicated. 

Whatever  may  be  the  permanent  significance  or 
influence  of  Mendelssohn's  best  work,  he  was,  as 
man,  musician,  conductor,  pianist,  organist  and 
composer,  one  of  the  most  powerful  influences  in 
molding  the  musical  thoughts  and  shaping  the 
musical  tendencies  of  the  second  and  third  quarters 
of  this  century  ;  he  was  a  musician  of  the  highest 
technical  attainments,  the  broadest  and  most  enlight- 


134 


HISTORY  OF  PIANOFORTE  MUSIC. 


ened  culture,  a  consummate  master  of  form,  an  orig- 
inal inventor  in  the  domain  of  melody  and  harmony, 
and  in  his  own  peculiar  field  of  romantic  emotional 
expression  he  was  unapproached.  This  is  probably 
the  most  that  can  be  said  for  his  pianoforte  music. 

Measured  by  the  standard  of  form,  finish,  musi- 
cianship, grace,  elegance,  refinement,  polish,  deli- 
cacy, beauty,  he  is  surpassed  by  few  or  none.  He 
must  be  credited,  too,  with  genuine  originality  and 
creative  power.  But  measured  by  the  standard  of 
nobility,  elevation  and  profound  significance  of  emo- 
tional content,  the  best  of  his  pianoforte  works  will 
poorly  bear  comparison  with  the  greatest  utterances 
of  Beethoven,  though  they  may  well  be  placed 
beside  the  finest  of  Schubert's  works,  and  are 
greatly  superior  to  almost  everything  of  Weber. 

His  "  St.  Paul  "  and  "  Elijah  "  stand  on  a  higher 
emotional  plane.  They  contain  noble  passages,  and 
sublime  climaxes,  and  Elijah "  has  scenes  of 
immense  dramatic  force.  That  these  works  have 
great  and  positive  merits  and  high  significance  is 
certainly  undeniable.  The  question  of  their  claims 
to  immortality  must  be  left  to  future  generations  for 
settlement.  But  there  can  be  no  question  as  to  the 
beneficent  influence  they  have  already  exerted. 
Their  author  certainly  had  a  place  and  mission  of 
his  own  in  the  world  ;  he  most  admirably  filled  the 
one  and  accomplished  the  other. 

FRAN901S  Frederic  Chopin  was  born  in  Zela- 
zowa  Wola,  a  village  near  Warsaw,  March  i,  1809. 
His  father,  Nicholas  Chopin,  was  a  Frenchman 


FRANQOIS  FREDERIC  CHOPIN. 


from  Lorraine,  who  had  settled  in  Warsaw  when  a 
young  man,  and  was  engaged  in  teaching  the 
French  language,  as  a  professor  in  the  Lyceum,  an 
institution  corresponding  in  a  general  way  to  our 
colleges.  He  also  taught  in  various  Government 
schools,  military  and  other,  and  was,  besides,  a  pri 
vate  teacher,  receiving  young  men  of  family  into  his 
household. 

Frederic's  mother  was  a  Polish  lady,  Justine  Kry- 
zanowska.  There  were  three  daughters,  one  of 
whom  died  young,  of  consumption  ;  but  Frederic 
was  the  only  son.  He  seems  to  have  taken  his 
character  mainly  from  his  mother,  his  traits  being  | 
decidedly  more  Polish  than  French,  and  he  always , 
counted  himself  a  Pole.  Indeed,  his  father  had  j 
thoroughly  identified  himself  with  his  adopted  coun- 
try, and  the  political  events  of  the  times  were  so 
impressive,  the  misfortunes  of  Poland  were  so  great 
and  fell  with  such  crushing  force  upon  all  residents  I 
of  Poland  that  patriotic  feeling  was  not  only  excited 
to  the  highest  pitch,  but  every  Pole  was  forced  to 
feel  the  humiliation  and  sorrow  of  grinding  tyranny 
and  oppression.  The  Poles  were  proud,  sensitive, 
excitable,  and  felt  the  sting  of  their  national  degra- 
dation as  keenly  as  human  beings  could  feel. 
Besides  this,  after  the  partition  of  1772,  almost  every 
Pole,  however  noble  or  distinguished,  was  exposed 
to  personal  insult  and  abuse.  Polish  hearts,  Cho- 
pin's among  the  rest,  were  mainly  occupied  with  the 
feelings  called  forth  by  their  national  calamities. 
In  this  we  may  find  the  key  to  the  emotional  con- 


Chap.  IX. 


His  Polish 
character. 


Character 

o/the 

Poles. 


136 


HISTORY  OF  PIANOFORTE  MUSIC. 


tent  of  many  of  his  compositions,  and  thus  account 
for  much  in  them  which  has  always  impressed  con- 
noisseurs as  being  somewhat  morbid. 

Young  Chopin  was  naturally  refined,  and  was 
brought  up  from  earliest  childhood  in  intimate  asso- 
ciation with  the  best  society  of  the  Polish  capital. 
His  manners  were  graceful  and  winning ;  while  at 
the  same  time  he  was  reserved  ;  much  more  so  than 
was  evident  on  the  surface  of  his  behavior.  His 
constitution  was  not  robust,  and  he  had  a  delicate 
and  susceptible  nervous  organization,  but  was, 
nevertheless,  sound  and  healthy, —  was,  indeed, 
never  ill  in  his  life  until  he  contracted  consumption 
in  Paris,  at  about  the  age  of  thirty.* 

His  father  gave  him  a  liberal  education  at  the 
Lyceum,  and  put  him  into  the  hands  of  two  excel- 
lent music  -teachers,  Albert  Zywny,  who  was  his 
only  teacher  in  piano-playing  and  who  made  him  a 
pianist  of  the  first  rank  before  he  was  twenty,  and 
Joseph  Eisner,  a  sound  and  excellent  German  musi- 
cian, who  taught  him  Harmony,  Counterpoint  and 
Composition. 

The  boy's  genius  and  originality  soon  began  to 
be  manifest,  both  in  improvisation  and  in  formal 
composition.  He  was  very  fond  of  the  Polish 
national  folk-songs  and  dances,  and  seizing  upon 
these  strange  melodies,  with  their  peculiar  rhythms, 

*Liszt's  book  on  Chopin  is  a  magazine  of  misinformation  on  this  and 
numerous  other  points,  though  it  contains  much  valuable  suggestion  and 
throws  a  great  deal  of  light  on  Chopin's  character  and  works  to  those  who 
can  discriminate  the  errors  from  the  truth.  See  article  in  Grove's  "  Dic- 
tionary of  Music  and  Musicians." 


FRANQOIS  FREDERIC  CHOPIM. 


he  supplied  them  with  original  harmonies  of  his 
own,  invented  cadences  peculiar  to  himself  and 
unique  in  the  history  of  music,  and  invested  them 
with  a  poetic  charm  and  significance  which  raised 
them  at  once  to  high  artistic  rank.  His  imagina- 
tion was  vivid,  subtle  and  powerful,  and  being 
kindled  by  the  peculiar  circumstances  in  his  sur- 
roundings, to  which  he  was  most  susceptible,  he 
began  almost  in  childhood  to  express  the  national 
feelings  in  musical  productions  of  the  most  ideally 
poetic  character.  He  was  extremely  modest  and 
retiring,  but  his  gifts  could  not  be  concealed,  and 
his  playing  was  eagerly  sought  for  and  listened  to 
with  delight  by  the  best  connoisseurs  of  Warsaw. 
His  first  public  performance  was  in  181 8,  when  he 
was  nine  years  of  age.  On  this  occasion  he  played 
a  concerto  by  Gyrowetz,  and  was  well  received,  but 
so  far  was  he  from  being  vain  of  his  success  as  a 
player,  that  when  his  mother  asked  him  about  it  he 
cried,  "  O  mamma,  everybody  was  looking  at  my 
new  collar  !" 

When  he  was  eighteen  years  old  his  father  deter- 
mined to  send  him  to  Berlin,  in  order  that  he  might 
meet  musicians,  hear  more  music  than  could  be 
heard  in  Warsaw,  and  under  better  conditions  than 
prevailed  there,  and  widen  his  experience  generally. 
Accordingly,  to  Berlin  went  the  boy,  in  company 
with  his  father's  friend.  Professor  Jarocki.  He 
heard  a  great  deal,  keenly  observed  all  that  was  to 
be  seen  and  heard,  received  numerous  impressions 
which  were  of  benefit  to  him,  but  neither  played  nor 

6* 


HISTORY  OF  PIANOFORTE  MUSIC. 


showed  his  compositions.  He  had  opportunities  to 
meet  Mendelssohn,  Spontini  and  Zelter,  but  was  too 
modest  to  avail  himself  of  them.  "  I  did  not  think 
it  becoming,"  he  writes  to  one  of  his  young  friends, 
"to  introduce  myself  to  these  gentlemen."* 

This  journey  taught  him  much  and  stimulated 
him  more.  He  returned  to  Warsaw  and  worked 
nearly  two  years  with  redoubled  zeal  and  industry. 
At  length,  in  July,  1829,  his  father  sent  him  away 
again,  this  time  to  Vienna,  and  urged  upon  him  the 
importance  of  not  only  making  the  acquaintance  of 
the  best  musicians  of  the  great  musical  capital,  but 
also  of  making  himself  known  by  playing  in  public. 

The  young  man  did  both.  He  carried  letters  of 
introduction  to  some  of  the  most  intelligent  and 
influential  persons  in  the  city  ;  they  at  once  per- 
ceived his  great  gifts,  though  he  himself  was  mod- 
estly unconscious  of  them  and  "wondered  what 
they  found  to  admire  in  him,"  and  all,  musicians 
and  laymen  alike,  pressed  him  to  play  in  public. 
He  appeared  in  two  concerts..  In  the  first  he  played 
his  variations  on  "  La  ci  darem,"  op.  2,  and  impro- 
vised on  two  themes,  one  from  "  La  Dame  Blanche," 
and  one  a  Polish  theme.  In  the  second  he  played 
his  "  Krakowiak,"  op.  14,  repeating  the  variations, 
by  request.  Both  his  playing  and  his  music  aroused 
great  enthusiasm.  The  admiration  was  nearly  uni- 
versal, and  Chopin  left  Vienna,  after  a  short  stay, 

*See  "  Friedrich  Chopin,  Sein  Leben,  Seine  Werke  und  Briefe,"  von 
Moritz  Karasowski,  Vol.  i,  p.  57.    This  is  the  one  authentic  biography  of 
Chopin,  and  it  is  to  be  hoped  that  it  may  shortly  be  translated  into  Eng- 
I  lish. 


FRAXgOIS  FREDERIC  CHOPIN'. 


'39 


amidst  flattering  plaudits.  He  went  home  by  a 
roundabout  way,  through  Prague  and  Dresden, 
reached  Warsaw  about  the  first  of  September,  and 
again  settled  down  to  work. 

His  Vienna  experience,  short  as  it  was,  did  much 
to  mature  his  character  and  talent.  The  day  after 
his  first  concert,  an  event  of  great  importance  to 
him,  he  wrote  to  his  parents  a  very  modest  letter, 
giving  a  full  account  of  the  whole  affair,  and  toward 
the  end  wrote,  "  I  am  now  at  least  four  years  older 
in  knowledge  and  experience."*  The  enthusiastic 
praise  he  received  from  the  best  artists  and  connois- 
seurs awakened  his  courage  and  gave  him  confi- 
dence in  his  own  powers,  while  it  stimulated  him  to 
the  exercise  of  them. 

Another  event  was  now  a  powerful  stimulus  to 
production  ;  he  had  become  passionately  enamored 
of  Constantia  Gladkowska,  a  young  lyric  actress  at 
the  Warsaw  theatre.  It  was  the  pure,  elevated  first 
love  of  a  high-minded,  refined  artist,  and  much  came 
of  it  in  the  way  of  composition.  His  emotions,  power- 
fully excited  by  this  passion,  as  well  as  by  the  events 
of  his  visit  to  Vienna,  sought  musical  expression, 
and  the  next  year  was  a  very  productive  one,  the 
most  important  works  being  the  Etudes,  op.  lo,  and 
his  two  concertos,  in  E  minor  and  in  F  minor.  In 
a  letter  to  one  of  his  very  few  intimate  friends, 
dated  October  3,  1829,  he  speaks  of  being  invited 
to  Berlin  by  the  Prince  and  Princess  Radziwill,  but 
says  he  has  begun  so  many  works  that  he  thinks  it 

*See  Karasowski,  Vol.  i,  p.  79. 


140 


HISTORY  OF  PIANOFORTE  MUSIC, 


would  be  wiser  to  remain  in  Warsaw.  In  the  next 
paragraph  of  the  same  letter  he  confides  to  his 
friend  that  he  has  found  his  ideal,  but  does  not  men- 
tion the  name  of  the  young  lady  ;  says  he  idolizes 
her,  but  has  never  yet  spoken  with  her.  He  says 
also  that  the  thought  of  her  inspired  him  in  the 
composition  of  the  Adagio  of  his  new  concerto,  and 
of  a  waltz*  he  had  just  written.  His  concerto  in  F 
minor,  afterwards  published  as  op.  21,  was  finished, 
and  Chopin  played  it  in  two  concerts  in  the  Warsaw 
theatre  in  March,  1830.  His  success  with  the 
public  was  immense,  and  gave  him  still  further 
encouragement. 

The  E  minor  concerto,  published  as  op.  11,  was 
finished  in  August,  and  on  the  eleventh  of  October 
he  played  it  in  concert  with  the  same  success  which 
had  hitherto  attended  his  public  performances.  The 
critics  praised  him  without  stint,  and  his  country- 
men were  proud  of  him  as  an  artist,  who  did  honor 
to  the  Polish  nation. 

They  had  indeed  abundant  reason  for  their  pride. 
If  he  had  accomplished  nothing  more  than  the  mere 
mastery  of  the  technical  difficulties  of  these  two  con- 
certos, he  would  have  ranked  as  one  of  the  greatest 
virtuosos  who  had  appeared  up  to  this  time.  In 

*See  Karasowski,  Vol.  i,  p.  io8.  A  foot  note  informs  us  that  the  E 
minor  concerto  is  the  one  referred  "to,  and  this  statement  is  repeated  on 
page  123.  But  the  evidence  furnished  by  Karasowski  is  conclusive  that 
the  F  minor  concerto  was  played  in  public  before  the  first  and  last  move- 
ments of  the  one  in  E  minor  were  written.  Possibly  the  Adagio  of  the 
latter  was  written  before  the  other  movements,  and  while  he  was  at  work 
on  the  former.  But  Karasowski  offers  us  no  evidence  whatever  in  support 
of  his  statement. 


FRANCOIS  FREDERIC  CHOPIN. 


141 


fact,  these  difficulties  were  not  only  very  great,  but 
they  were  of  so  peculiar  a  kind  as  to  form  an  epoch 
in  the  history  of  pianoforte  technics,  and  there  was 
hardly  anybody  at  that  time,  except  Chopin  himself 
and  his  great  contemporary,  Liszt,  who  could  have 
played  them.  Pianists  had  to  accustom  themselves 
to  the  new  manner  before  they  could  find  them- 
selves at  home  in  it.  But  to  have  invented  these 
new  figures  and  combinations  was  a  much  greater 
feat. 

When  we  consider  the  artistic  significance  of 
these  works,  the  depth,  fullness  and  variety  of 
their  emotional  content,  the  force  of  contrast, 
the  vigor,  subtlety  and  vividness  of  imagination,  the 
richness  of  harmony  and  modulation,  the  beauty  of 
the  melodies,  the  perfection  of  form,  the  ease  and 
power  with  which  the  intellectual  elements  are  con- 
trolled, the  sure  intuition  by  which  the  musical 
means  are  adapted  to  the  requirements  of  expres- 
sion, the  refinement  which  pervades  the  whole,  we 
must  admit  that  in  this  young  man  of  twenty-one 
we  have  before  us  one  of  the  most  original  creators 
yet  known,  of  whom  not  only  Poland  but  the  whole 
world  might  justly  be  proud. 

With  these  two  concertos  Chopin  left  his  home 
for  Vienna,  November  2,  1830.*  He  never  returned 

♦The  statement  in  Mr.  Edward  Dannreuther's  admirable,  though  brief 
article  on  Chopin,  in  Grove's  "  Dictionary  of  Music  and  Musicians,"  that 
Chopin  was  only  nineteen  at  this  time,  is  a  singular  slip  on  the  part  of  a 
usually  careful  writer.  The  evidence  in  Karasowski's  book,  to  which  Mr. 
Dannreuther  refers,  though  he  carelessly  overlooked  the  facts,  is  conclu- 


142 


HISTORY  OF  PIANOFORTE  MUSIC. 


to  Warsaw,  and  with  this  departure  closed  the  epoch 
of  his  youth.  His  friends  accompanied  him  a  short 
distance  on  his  way,  and  at  a  banquet  in  a  neigh- 
boring village  presented  him  with  a  silver  cup  filled 
to  the  brim  with  Polish  soil,  solemnly  adjuring  him 
never  to  forget  friends  and  fatherland.  There  was 
no  need  of  the  exhortation  ;  Chopin  was  true  and 
faithful,  and  loved  his  country  and  his  home  with 
ardent  passion.  This  cup  and  its  contents  he  kept 
religiously  to  the  end  of  his  life,  and  this  Polish 
earth  was,  at  his  own  request,  strewn  on  his  coffin 
at  his  burial. 

He  traveled  to  Vienna  by  way  of  Breslau,  Dres- 
den and  Prague,  but  he  found  the  conditions  there 
much  less  favorable  for  him  than  on  his  former 
visit.  Many  of  his  old  friends  were  absent,  and 
various  circumstances  conspired  to  prevent  his  giv- 
ing concerts  as  he  had  intended,  although  he  finally 
gave  a  single  one  to  a  small  audience,  not  long 
before  his  departure. 

Among  these  unfavorable  circumstances  was  the 
Polish  uprising  of  November  29th,  1830.  The 
Austrian  government  and  nobility  became  suspicious 
of  all  Poles  and  very  much  disinclined  to  favor 
them  in  any  way,  and  Chopin's  sympathies  were 
so  much  with  his  oppressed  and  desperate  country- 
men that  only  the  urgent  representations  of  his 
father  as  to  his  unfitness  for  military  duty  kept  him 
from  returning  at  once  to  Warsaw  to  join  his  young 
friends  in  the  ranks  of  the  insurgents.  Thus 
Vienna  was  no  longer  the  pleasant  place  he  had 


FRANQOIS  FREDERIC  CHOPIN. 


143 


found  it  a  year  before,  and  he  determined  to  go  to 
Paris.  But  Paris  was  the  headquarters  of  insurrec- 
tion. It  was  the  success  of  the  July  Revolution  in 
Paris  which  had  given  hope  to  the  Poles  and  been 
the  occasion  of  the  present  outbreak.  A  Pole  seek- 
ing a  passport  for  Paris  was  a  suspicious  character, 
and  Chopin's  application  was  refused.  He  then 
applied  for  a  passport  for  England,  via  Paris,  and 
after  considerable  delay  received  permission  to  go 
as  far  as  Munich  on  his  way.  He  reached  the 
Bavarian  capital,  July  20,  183 1,  remained  there  a 
few  weeks,  made  the  acquaintance  of  the  best 
artists  there,  and,  at  their  urgent  request,  played  his 
E  minor  concerto  in  one  of  the  concerts  of  the 
Philharmonic  Society.  His  playing  as  well  as  his 
composition  met  with  a  reception  which  went  far  to 
compensate  him  for  his  disappointments  in  Vienna. 
But  a  severe  blow  was  in  store  for  him.  In  Stutt- 
gart he  received  the  news  of  the  taking  of  Warsaw 
by  the  Russians,  and  was  naturally  filled  with 
anxiety  and  grief.  In  this  frame  of  mind  he  gave 
vent  to  his  feelings  in  the  passionate,  fiery  Etude  in 
C  minor,  op.  10,  No.  12,  sometimes  called  the 
"Revolution  Etude,"  a  composition  every  way 
worthy  of  its  author  and  of  the  occasion  which 
called  it  forth. 

He  arrived  in  Paris  toward  the  end  of  September, 
and  there  he  remained,  barring  occasional  journeys, 
for  the  rest  of  his  life.  The  fate  of  his  native 
country  drove  the  greater  part  of  the  noble  and 
intelligent  among  his  countrymen  into  exile;  many 


144 


HISTORY  OF  PIANOFORTE  MUSIC. 


of  them  settled  in  Paris,  and  Chopin  was  much  more 
at  home  there  than  he  could  possibly  have  been  in 
Warsaw.  So,  after  a  while,  he  became  a  naturalized 
French  citizen,  and  used  to  refer  jokingly  to  his 
Vienna  passport  "to  London,  via  Paris."  saying  that 
he  was  only  on  his  way  to  England. 

But  the  beginning  of  his  life  in  Paris  was  far  from 
encouraging.  He  was  too  modest  to  put  himself 
forward  by  giving  concerts,  or  in  any  other  way, 
and  he  was  wholly  unknown.  Success  in  Vienna,  or 
indeed  anywhere  in  Europe,  did  not  involve  success 
in  Paris  or  the  slightest  reputation  in  that  vain- 
glorious metropolis.  Chopin  imagined  himself  in 
need  of  further  instruction  and  bethought  him  of 
taking  lessons  of  Kalkbrenner,  at  that  time  the 
most  fashionable  teacher  in  Paris,  a  robust,  healthy 
artisan  of  a  player,  without  a  particle  of  genius  in 
his  composition,  whose  vigorous  style  of  playing, 
combined  with  his  really  high  technical  attainments, 
made  him  pass  for  the  greatest  virtuoso  in  Europe. 

This  man,  now  wholly  forgotten,  the  whole  list  of 
whose  compositions  is  not  worth  the  ink  it  would 
take  to  print  a  Chopin  mazurka,  had  then  such  a 
reputation  that  Chopin,  already  an  artist  whose 
shoes  Kalkbrenner  was  not  worthy  to  loose,  actually 
went  to  him  and  began  negotiations  for  lessons. 
Kalkbrenner  heard  him  play,  saw  at  once  what  an 
increase  of  reputation  such  a  pupil  would  give  him. 
began  to  pick  flaws  in  his  technic,  assured  him  that 
his  playing  did  not  conform  to  classical  rules  and 
needed  a  great  deal  of  overhauling,  and  finished  by 


FRANCOIS  FREDERIC  CHOPIN. 


informing  him  that  he  would  need  three  years  to 
train  him  properly,  and  would  accept  him  as  a  pupil 
if  he  would  agree  to  remain  with  him  that  length  of 
time. 

Chopin  was  very  modest  indeed,  but  he  had 
sufficient  knowledge  of  his  own  powers  and  attain- 
ments to  be  surprised  at  this  proposal;  perhaps,  too, 
a  suspicion  that  to  become  a  second  Kalkbrenner 
was  not  the  high  calling  to  which  he  was  chosen, 
began  to  dawn  upon  him  before  the  interview  was 
over;  at  any  rate,  he  hesitated  and  determined  to 
ask  advice  of  his  father  and  of  his  former  excellent 
teacher,  Eisner,  before  deciding  the  matter.  Eis- 
ner wrote  him  a  wise  and  cautious  letter;  in  which, 
without  advising  him  directly  what  he  should  do,  he 
laid  down  the  principles  which  ought  to  guide  his 
decision.  He  suggested  plainly  enough  that  Chopin 
ought  to  give  his  own  genius  a  chance  to  develop 
naturally  in  its  own  way,  and  not  allow  any  blind 
Philistine  to  cramp  it  by  pseudo-classical  restric- 
tions, or  distort  it  by  crowding  it  into  a  mould  for 
which  nature  never  intended  it,  that  his  gifts  as  a 
a  composer  were  of  far  more  permanent  importance 
than  his  piano-playing,  and  that  three  years  devoted 
to  acquiring  the  Kalkbrenner  virtuosity  was  very 
much  more  time  than  he  could  afford  to  give  to  any 
such  purpose.  Meanwhile,  Chopin  had  had  several 
more  interviews  with  the  distinguished  Parisian 
virtuoso,  had  played  for  him  a  good  deal,  had 
obtained  from  him  the  admission  that  he  hardly 
needed  three  years  of  training  in  order  to  be- 

K  7 


146 


HISTORY  OF  PIANOFORTE  MUSIC. 


Chap,  IX. 


He  acquires 
a  real  per- 
ception 0/ 
his  own 
powers. 


come  a  great  pianist,  and  had  come  to  much  the 
same  conclusions  as  those  hinted  at  in  his  old 
teacher's  guarded  letter. 

It  had  become  clear  to  him  that  the  Kalkbrenner 
virtuosity  was  no  model  for  him,  that  on  no  account 
could  he  nor  would  he  copy  any  such  example;  that 
even  the  truly  classical  field,  whatever  its  richness 
and  fertility,  was  not  his  field;  still  less  could  he  see 
any  way  of  producing  anything  from  the  little  bar- 
ren, stony  patch  so  assiduously  cultivated  by  the 
Parisian  pianists  and  composers  in  total  unconscious- 
ness of  its  sterility.  In  short,  the  young  man  had 
been  making  the  comparisons  forced  upon  his  atten- 
tion and  had  fairly  begun  to  be  conscious  of  his 
own  powers.  He  saw  that  his  productions  were 
wholly  different,  both  in  form  and  in  content,  from 
what  he  saw  around  him.  He  could  not  help 
believing  in  the  validity  of  the  principles  which 
guided  him  and  of  the  inward  forces  which  strove 
in  him  for  outward  manifestation,  nor  could  he 
longer  conceal  from  himself  that  the  legitimate  out- 
come of  these  forces  and  principles  must  be  to 
create  a  new  epoch  in  the  history  of  musical  Art. 
And  so,  with  strengthened  courage  and  impulse, 
with  firm  and  high  purpose,  he  addressed  himself 
eagerly  and  hopefully  to  the  special  and  peculiar 
work,  which  he  now  clearly  saw  it  had  been  given 
him  to  do.  All  this  he  boldly,  but  still  modestly, 
announces  to  Eisner  in  his  reply  to  his  teacher's 
fatherly  letter:  he  says  decidedly  that  whatever  study 
he  now  does  will  be  pursued  with  a  view  to  enabling 


FRANqOIS  FREDERIC  CHOPIN. 


147 


him  to  stand  more  firmly  on  his  own  feet,  gratefully 
acknowledges  Eisner's  wise  and  fatherly  counsel,  and 
dutifully  hopes  his  kind  friend  will  not  withhold  his 
approval  and  blessing. 

But  what  to  do  for  a  living  ?  His  acquaintances, 
outside  of  a  small  circle  of  artists  and  a  larger  one 
of  his  impoverished  refugee  countrymen,  were  few; 
he  could  not  at  once  sell  his  compositions;  he  had 
no  pupils.  His  artist  friends,  Kalkbrenner  among 
them,  encouraged  him  to  give  a  concert  and  helped 
him  with  the  necessary  arrangements,  but  many 
hindrances  stood  in  the  way,  and  when  he  at  last 
gave  it,  in  February,  1832,  hardly  anybody  went 
except  the  more  wealthy  of  his  own  countrymen, 
and  the  concert  did  not  pay  expenses.  Chopin, 
always  easily  depressed,  was  very  much  discouraged. 
He  conceived  the  idea  of  going  to  America,  and 
wrote  his  parents,  beseeching  them  to  give  their 
consent  to  his  plan.  Karasowski  has  some  pertinent 
remarks  as  to  the  intolerable  position  in  which  such 
a  sensitive,  retiring,  aristocratic  artist  would  have 
found  himself  in  practical,  unpoetic,  democratic 
America,  if  he  had  been  unwise  enough  to  settle 
here  in  1832  !  Fifty  years  have  made  a  wonderful 
change. 

But  Chopin's  parents  knew  better.  They  insisted 
that  he  should  either  remain  in  Paris  or  return  to 
Warsaw,  and  in  spite  of  the  numerous  attractions  of 
the  French  capital,  his  discouragements  there  com- 
bined with  his  home  sickness  to  decide  him  to  brave 
the  displeasure  of  the  Russian  Government  and  go 


HISTORY  OF  PIANOFORTE  MUSIC. 


Chap.  IX. 


Not  success- 
ftil  as  a 
player  in 
large 
audience 
rooms. 


home.  His  friends  in  Paris,  Liszt  among  others,  in 
vain  tried  to  dissuade  him;  his  trunk  was  already 
packed  when  he  happened  to  meet  Prince  Radiwill 
in  the  street,  told  him  of  his  intention  and  bade  him 
good-bye.  The  Prince  pressed  him  to  go  with  him 
that  evening  to  a  reception  at  Baron  Rothschild's. 
Chopin  consented,  and  that  evening  proved  the 
turning  point  in  his  career.  His  hostess  invited  him 
to  play  ;  he  was  excited  and  inspired  by  his  sur- 
roundings ;  played  and  improvised  in  a  way  that 
drew  forth  universal  enthusiasm  and  applause  from 
the  company,  and  found  himself  at  once  on  the 
road  to  fame  and  fortune.  Before  he  left  the  house 
he  had  numerous  applications  to  give  lessons  in  the 
best  families  of  Paris.  He  gave  up  his  plan  of 
leaving,  and  henceforth  depended  on  his  earnings 
for  a  livelihood.  There  was  not  the  slightest  diffi- 
culty about  it;  he  at  once  became  the  fashion,  grew 
more  and  more  popular  among  the  wealthy  and  cul- 
tivated Parisians,  turned  the  heads  of  the  beautiful 
women  in  the  French  metropolis,  his  compositions 
were  eagerly  bought  as  fast  as  they  were  published, 
I  and  as  pianist,  teacher  and  composer  he  was,  to  the 
I  day  of  his  death,  the  idol  of  society. 
I  As  a  concert  player,  however,  he  was  compara- 
tively unsuccessful.  His  playing  was  fine,  delicate, 
tender;  he  loved  to  play  a  piano  with  a  soft,  delicate 
tone,  and  his  proper  place  was  in  a  drawing-room, 
not  a  large  theatre  or  concert-hall.  This  he  dis- 
covered, to  his  mortification,  at  his  second  concert 
in  Paris,  where  he  failed  to  make  any  effect  with  the 


FRANQOIS  FREDERIC  CHOPIN. 


149 


great  audience  in  the  vast  auditorium  of  the  Italian 
Opera.  Henceforth  pubUc  playing  became  distasteful 
to  him;  he  left  it  to  his  friend  Liszt  who,  as  he  said, 

could  storm  and  deafen  the  public  into  surrender," 
and  played  almost  exclusively  in  small  parties  of 
connoisseurs,  where,  under  the  influence  of  sympa- 
thetic auditors,  especially  ladies,  his  finest  artistic 
qualities  showed  themselves. 

Thus  Chopin  all  at  once  found  himself  floating 
on  the  top  wave  of  prosperity  But  there  was 
trouble  in  store  for  the  young  artist.  In  1832,  Con- 
stantia  Gladkowska  was  married  in  Warsaw.  Cho- 
pin's letters  to  his  friend,*  Johannes  Matuszynski, 
prove  that  his  love  for  her  was  pure,  deep  and  pas- 
sionate. This  love  he  had  never  confided  to  his 
parents,  and  there  had  been  no  acknowledged 
engagement,  but  Constantia  had  at  least  so  far 
encouraged  him  that,  on  his  departure  from  Warsaw, 
she  gave  him  a  ring  as  a  token  of  affection.  Her 
marriage  must  have  been  a  terrible  disappointment 
to  him,  and  a  great  mortification  as  well,  though  no 
record  of  his  feelings  on  this  subject  exists.  But 
Chopin  was  young,  popular,  had  only  too  much  to 
distract  his  thoughts,  and  time  heals  even  severe 
hurts. 

In  his  next  love  affair  he  was  equally  unfortunate, 
and  even  more  so,  so  far  as  the  wound  to  his  self- 
love  was  concerned.  In  1836  he  was  betrothed  to 
a  young  and  beautiful  countrywoman  of  his,  and  he 


*  See  Karasowski,  Vol.  I,  chap.  X. 


HISTORY  OF  PIANOFORTE  MUSIC. 


and  all  his  friends  were  rejoicing  in  the  near  pros- 
pect of  a  happy  marriage,  when  the  young  lady  sud- 
denly decided  to  accept  a  count  for  her  husband, 
and  broke  with  her  artist-lover  without  warning  or 
ceremony.  It  was  a  cruel  humiliation,  and  no 
human  being  could  have  felt  its  sting  more  keenly 
or  deeply  than  did  Chopin.  It  rankled  terribly,  the 
more  that  he  was  not  at  all  demonstrative  by  nature. 
He  brooded  over  his  feelings  in  secret,  grew  even 
more  reserved  and  melancholy  than  usual,  and 
finally  became  morbid  and  almost  desperate. 

In  this  mood  he  made  the  acquaintance  of  a  most 
remarkable  woman,  who  was  henceforth  to  exercise 
a  controlling  power  in  his  life. 

Mme.  Aurora  Dudevant,  known  in  literature 
under  her  pseudonym  of  "George  Sand,"  was  a 
woman  of  genius,  and  already  held  a  commanding 
position  in  the  literary  world.  The  vigor  and  fire 
of  her  imagination,  combined  with  the  force,  refine- 
ment and  artistic  finish  of  her  style,  had  made  her 
known  as  a  consummate  literary  artist,  and  had 
given  her  a  high  place  in  the  world's  estimation,  and 
especially  in  the  coterie  of  writers,  painters,  musi- 
cians, artists  and  distinguished  amateurs,  of  which 
Chopin  was  by  no  means  the  least  important  mem- 
ber. In  personal  character  Mme.  Sand  was  peculiar. 
She  was  powerful,  almost  masculine  in  her  mental 
and  bodily  traits.  She  was  passionate,  but  not 
coarse  ;  religious,  without  accepting  any  of  the  cur- 
rent theological  dogmas  ;  moral  in  her  way,  but  with 
a  moral  sense  which  most  right  thinking  people 


FRANQOIS  FREDERIC  CHOPIN. 


would  consider  perverted,  for  she  held  opinions  the 
legitimate  outcome  of  which  would  be  to  dissolve 
the  bonds  of  society.  She  was,  in  short,  a  free-lover 
in  belief  and  practice,  was  separated  from  her  hus- 
band, and  supported  herself  and  her  two  children 
by  her  pen.  Her  principles  anci  conduct  were  no 
bar  to  her  admission  into  a  society  where  dullness  was 
the  greatest  of  crimes,  and  wit,  not  to  say  genius, 
atoned  for  many  moral  delinquencies,  provided  they 
were  covered  with  a  veil  of  decorum. 

From  any  introduction  to  this  woman  Chopin  had 
shrunk.  He  knew  her  books,  admired  her  genius, 
but  felt,  nevertheless,  a  strong  prejudice  against  her, 
and  a  desire  to  avoid  her.  Hitherto  he  had  been 
successful  in  doing  so,  but  just  at  the  crisis  of  his 
second  love  affair  she  was  presented  to  him  one 
evening  at  a  reception,  fell  violently  in  love  with 
him,  flattered  him  by  her  praise  and  attention,  suc- 
ceeded in  fascinating  him,  and  soon  inspired  him 
with  a  strong  feeling  of  affection.  He  went  at 
length  to  live  at  her  house,  and  continued  his  inti- 
mate relations  with  her  until  1847,  when  she  tired 
of  him,  grew  cool,  and  showed  so  plainly  that  she 
had  outlived  her  passion  that  Chopin,  already  nearly 
dead  with  consumption,  withdrew  from  her  house 
and  left  her  to  her  own  devices.  But  his  attach- 
ment to  her  had  become  his  strongest  passion,  and 
the  rupture  with  her  proved  fatal  to  him. 

His  illness  had  been  a  lingering  one.  It  began 
with  a  severe  attack  of  bronchitis  in  1837.  He  sought 
relief  in  a  Southern  climate,  spend  the  winter  of 


HISTORY  OF  PIANOFORTE  MUSIC. 


Chap^ix.  1837-8  with  Mme.  Sand  in  the  island  of  Majorca, 
and  appeared  to  grow  better  after  his  return.  But 
consumption  began  very  soon,  and  was  aggravated 
by  late  hours  and  the  excitement  of  Parisian  society. 
Its  progress  was  slow  but  sure.  For  a  long  time 
before  he  left  Mme.  Sand's  house  he  gave  his  lessons 
lying  on  a  sofa,  occasionally  rising  for  a  moment  to 
give  an  example  or  make  some  necessary  correction. 
During  his  illness,  too,  he  became  very  irritable  and 
his  pupils  had  often  to  grant  the  pardon  which  he 
always  asked  for  breaches  of  a  courtesy  which  had 
never  failed  during  the  earlier  portion  of  his  life. 
Two  years  he  lingered  on  after  the  last  of  his  social 
disappointments  and  then  he  died,  surrounded  and 
mourned  by  his  friends  and  pupils,  October  17,  1849. 

The  last  twelve  years  of  his  life  require  no 
detailed  mention  here.     The  record  would  be  a 
monotonous  one.    His  character  had  already  been 
formed,  and  many  of  his  greatest  productions  had 
y,^^  -        seen  the  light  before  this  time.    The  Preludes,  or 
preludes      most  of  them,  were  written  during  his  winter  in 

0/ a  morbid  '  ^ 

character.  Majorca,  and  many  of  them  show  traces  of  his  mor- 
bid mental  condition.  He  was  suffering  from  his 
disorder;  the  winter  was  unusually  cold  and  stormy; 
he  was  exceedingly  nervous  and  a  prey  to  hypochon- 
driacal fancies,  which  at  times  bordered  on  insanity. 
This  condition  of  mind  was  not  permanent,  but 
often  recurred  during  the  last  years  of  his  life,  as 
his  disease  grew  upon  him  and  his  sorrows  in- 
creased ;  and  the  compositions  of  these  years  often 
reflect  his  delirious  mental  condition.    It  is  diffi- 


FRANQOIS  FREDERIC  CHOPIN. 


cult  to  decide,  however,  just  what  compositions  are 
to  be  assigned  to  this  period  of  his  Ufe.  The  opus 
numbers  are  no  guide;  they  only  indicate  the  order 
of  publication,  not  of  composition,  and  many  of 
the  works  published  after  his  death  were  written  in 
very  early  life. 

The  order  of  composition  is  approximately  as 
follows:  From  op.  i  to  op.  15,  inclusive,  were 
written  before  he  went  to  Paris;  so  was  the  Concerto, 
op.  21,  which  was  composed  before  the  others;  from 
op.  16  to  op.  52,  fall  between  1832  and  1843;  from 
op.  53  to  op.  65,  belong  to  the  years  1843  to  1847. 
The  works  numbered  from  op.  66  onward  are  all 
posthumous,  and  with  the  single  exception  of  the 
Fantasie  -  Impromptu,  op.  66,  are  comparatively 
insignificant  pieces,  which  Chopin  himself  intended 
to  destroy.* 

Of  all  his  works,  none  are  characterized  by  more 
beauty,  freshness,  originality,  or  vigor  than  his  Con- 
certo in  E  minor,  op.  11.  Of  the  works  written  in 
Paris  before  1 843, when  his  disease  began  to  be  serious, 
those  most  original  in  form  are  the  Ballads,  Scherzos 
and  Impromptus.  Some  of  the  Nocturnes,  Mazur- 
kas and  Polonaises  are,  however,  equally  character- 
istic and  significant  as  regards  their  content,  and 
extremely  original  in  melody,  harmony,  cadences, 

*There  are  two  admirable  complete  editions  of  Chopiu's  works,  one 
or  both  of  which  ought  to  be  in  the  hands  of  every  student.  One  edited 
by  Carl  Klindworth,  and  published  by  Bote  &  Bock,  in  Berlin,  in  three 
volumes,  at  $3.00 each,  and  one  edited  by  Hermann  Scholtz,  and  published 
by  C.  F.  Peters,  in  three  volumes,  in  Leipzig,  at  $1.75  each,  or  $5.00  for  the 
complete  edition. 


154 


HISTORY  OF  PIANOFORTE  MUSIC. 


figures  and  phraseology.  The  most  important  com- 
positions after  this  period  were  the  splendid  and 
imposing  Polonaise  in  A  flat,  op.  53,  the  Polonaise- 
Fantasie,  op.  61,  and  the  beautiful  Berceuse,  op. 
57.  But  while  there  are  degrees  of  excellence  in 
his  works,  there  is  almost  nothing  from  Chopin's 
pen  which  is  not  beautiful,  poetic,  significant,  full  of 
the  real  inspiration  of  true  genius,  the  expression  of 
the  innermost  life  of  a  born  artist,  a  passionate  lover 
and  worshipper  of  the  Beautiful,  serving  his  beloved 
Art  and  its  ideal  aims  with  unswerving  and  con- 
scientious devotion. 

As  regards  the  emotional  content  of  these  works, 
perhaps  little  need  be  added  to  what  has  already 
been  said.  Chopin's  emotional  life  was  determined 
first  of  all  by  his  inherited  traits,  mostly  Polish,  then 
by  the  political  disasters  which  befell  his  country, 
and  the  consequent  personal  misfortunes  of  his 
friends  and  countrymen,  and  lastly,  by  his  intellect- 
ual life  and  his  social  relations.  His  life  in  Paris 
was  an  exciting  one,  in  spite  of  his  comparative 
seclusion  from  the  public.  He  was  in  daily  inter- 
course with  the  most  intellectual  men  and  women 
of  Parisian  society, — artists,  authors,  wits,  such  per- 
sons as  Heinrich  Heine,  Eugene  Delacroix,  Ary 
Scheffer,  Franz  Liszt,  Mme.  George  Sand.  His  even- 
ings were  passed  in  the  salons  of  beautiful,  intelli- 
gent, aristocratic  ladies,  whose  subtle  charms  attracted 
this  select  company  of  congenial  spirits;  and  there 
Art,  Literature  and  the  higher  life  of  intelligence 
were  supreme.     In  this  circle  the  noblest  among 


FRA.yqOIS  FREDERIC  CHOP IX. 


Chopin's  countrymen  found  place,  and  in  him  they 
found  a  most  ardent  sympathizer  with  all  their  past 
sorrows,  the  woes  of  their  present  exile  and  their 
patriotic  hopes  and  aspirations. 

There  is  a  certain  heroic  vein  in  many  of  his  com- 
positions which  comes  of  his  glowing  patriotism, 
notably  in  his  Polonaises,  which  are  among  the  most 
characteristically  national  of  his  productions.  But 
this  heroism  is,  after  all,  a  very  different  quality 
from  that  which  in  Beethoven  we  call  by  the  same 
name.  It  lacks  the  ethical  element,  and  it  never 
suggests  religious  elevation.  The  heroic  feelings 
expressed  in  these  works  savor  more  of  pride  of 
birth,  of  military  ardor,  of  national  humiliation,  of 
the  outraged  self-love  of  a  people,  once  celebrated 
for  glorious  military  achievements  but  now  down- 
trodden and  oppressed,  than  of  the  moral  indigna- 
tion of  the  reformer,  the  struggle  with  temptation 
and  with  outward  hindrance  to  the  higher  life,  the 
striving  after  the  highest  ideals  in  character.  Not 
that  Chopin  is  ignoble,  or  immoral,  or  even  irre- 
ligious; not  at  all.  He  was  brought  up  a  strict 
Catholic,  and  his  early  religious  training,  not  un- 
mixed with  puerile  superstition,  was  the  ground  on 
which  his  whole  character  was  based.  He  was  high- 
minded,  his  whole  mental  activity  was  permeated  with 
a  fine  moral  sense,  with  refinement  and  high-bred 
courtesy.  He  was  a  man  of  the  world  in  the  best 
and  highest  sense,  but  still  a  man  of  the  world. 
His  interests  are  human  interests;  his  relations 
human  relations  ;  his  joys  and  sorrows  grow  out  of 


HISTORY  OF  PIANOFORTE  MUSIC. 


his  social  surroundings,  and  when  bitter  disappoint- 
ment overtakes  him  his  consolations  are  to  be  found 
in  his  relations  to  his  fellows  and  in  his  beloved  Art. 
His  highest  mental  resource  seems  to  be  the  love  of 
the  Beautiful  and  the  power  to  create  beautiful 
forms  adapted  to  his  need  of  emotional  expression. 

To  Chopin  we  go  then  for  perfect  expression  of 
the  emotions  engendered  in  a  high-bred  exclusive, 
intellectual  society,  as  well  as  of  those  peculiar  to 
himself  and  his  nation,  and  for  perfect  embodiment 
of  beautiful  conceptions  in  highly  original  forms; 
not  for  moral  inspiration  or  religious  uplifting.  The 
"  religious  passion  and  elevation  "  and  the  "widen- 
ing of  men's  moral  horizon "  justly  ascribed  to 
Beethoven  are  not  to  be  found  in  Chopin.  By  so 
much  is  the  Polish  composer  inferior,  in  that  the 
content  of  his  greatest  works  is  on  a  lower  emotional 
plane  than  that  occupied  by  the  noblest  utterances  of 
his  great  predecessor.  In  originality  and  power  of 
conception,  in  invention,  in  mastery  of  his  musical 
material  he  is  inferior  to  no  one.  What  he  had  to 
say  was  his  own,  it  was  great  and  beautiful,  and  he 
said  it  in  a  manner  above  criticism;  but  it  was  not 
the  highest  and  noblest  thing  yet  said  in  the 
language  of  the  pianoforte. 

Robert  Schumann  was  born 
an  insignificant  mining  town  in 
1810.  He  was  the  youngest  of 
the  only  one  of  the  family  who  achieved  distinction. 
His  father  was  a  bookseller  and  publisher,  who  had 
had  literary  aspirations  and  ambitions  beyond  his 


in  Zwickau,  then 
Saxony,  June  8, 
five  children,  and 


ROBERT  SCHUMANN. 


^57 


abilities ;  his  mother  was  a  surgeon's  daughter,  of 
some  intelHgence,  but  narrow  and  provincial  in  her 
education  and  opinions,  and  decidedly  contemptu- 
ous of  musicians  and  artists  generally.  Not  a  prom- 
ising condition  of  things  in  this  family  for  the  devel- 
opment of  a  musical  genius.  There  had  been  no 
musical  talent  in  the  family  heretofore,  and  there 
was  no  musical  life  or  interest  there  now  beyond 
what  was  connected  with  the  church  and  the  schools. 
The  town  offered  few  advantages.  The  best  piano 
teacher  there  was  Professor  Kuntzsch  of  the  High 
School,  a  pedantic,  self-made  musician,  with  the 
defects  of  method  and~  the  narrow  provincialism 
inevitable  in  a  teacher  who  had  never  been  well 
trained  and  who  lived  so  far  from  the  centres  of 
intellectual  and  artistic  activity  as  to  be  but  little 
affected  by  the  currents  of  musical  life  of  his  time. 

Robert  did  not  particularly  distinguish  himself  at 
school,  either  in  childhood  or  later,  but  he  began  to 
give  evidence  of  musical  gifts  very  early,  and  his 
father  was  wise  enough  to  send  him  to  Professor 
Kuntzsch  for  lessons.  But  he  does  not  seem  to  have 
profited  much  by  the  instruction,  partly  because  his 
teacher  was  incompetent,  partly  because  the  two 
natures  were  incompatible,  and  quite  as  much  be- 
cause the  boy  was  very  badly  spoiled,  had  been 
indulged  as  the  baby  and  the  family  pet,  and  was 
too  irritable,  susceptible  and  obstinate  to  learn  much 
of  anybody  except  some  one  who  could  have 
obtained  complete  mastery  of  him.  This  whole- 
some control  he  never  had.    He  showed  the  effects 


HISTORY  OF  PIANOFORTE  MUSIC. 


of  his  childish  faults  to  some  extent  all  his  life  and 
suffered  from  them,  both  as  artist  and  as  man. 

But  there  were  forces  in  him  which  could  no  more 
help  coming  to  outward  manifestation  than  a  live 
acorn  can  help  growing  into  an  oak,  if  it  have  any 
soil  at  all  for  nourishment.  What  Robert  Schu- 
mann might  have  become  if  he  had  been  thoroughly 
disciplined  and  surrounded  by  favorable  influences 
in  his  early  years  we  can  only  conjecture.  What  he 
did  become  we  know ;  and  in  spite  of  weaknesses 
and  defects  the  world  has  long  since  agreed  to 
acknowledge  him  as  one  of  the  great  leaders  and 
creative  minds  of  his  time.  It  is  possible  that  the 
very  circumstances  which  we  deplore  as  apparently 
unfavorable  fostered  the  originality  now  so  much 
admired  ;  but  it  is  more  than  probable  that  this 
natural  force  was  too  strong  to  have  been  crushed 
by  any  systematic  training,  however  pedantic,  and 
that  such  surroundings  as  Chopin  or  Mendelssohn 
had  would  have  developed  and  enriched  his  nature 
and  genius  without  warping  or  misleading  him.  But 
however  this  may  be,  Schumann  never  did  become 
either  a  thoroughly  trained  pianist  or  musician  in 
the  ordinary  sense. 

His  playing  was  always  more  or  less,  faulty  in  tone 
and  in  execution,  and  he  never  attained  perfect  cor- 
rectness or  ease.  His  Leipzig  teacher,  Wieck,  wanted 
him  to  study  harmony  systematically,  when  he  first 
took  lessons  of  him  at  the  age  of  eighteen,  but  Rob- 
ert seemed  to  think  a  young  fellow  who  could 
improvise  harmonies  on  the  piano  had  no  need  of 


ROBERT  SCHUMANN. 


any  system  and  so  left  harmony  alone,  until  costly 
experience  taught  him  that  he  could  not  do  without 
it.  This  was  one  side  of  the  boy's  character  ;  but  if 
he  had. faults  for  which  he  had  by  and  by  to  pay 
dearly,  he  had  also  traits  which  were  to  make  him 
both  useful  and  famous.  If  he  was  self-willed  and 
obstinate,  he  was  at  any  rate  alive ;  if  he  would 
grow  only  in  his  own  way,  still  grow  he  would  and 
did,  and  a  marvelous  growth  it  was. 

In  early  childhood  he  showed  a  wonderful  power 
of  reproducing  in  tones  impressions  made  on  his 
sensibility  by  persons,  scenes  and  events.  In  spite 
of  his  imperfect  execution,  he  would  sit  down  to  his 
pianoforte  and  invent  melodic  figures  and  phrases  so 
characteristic  of  the  traits  of  his  friends  that  the 
likenesses  would  be  recognized  at  once,  and  comical 
enough  were  some  of  these  tone-portraits.  Thus, 
from  the  very  first,  this  peculiar  phase  of  the  roman- 
tic tendency  manifested  itself  in  the  boy.  It  was 
innate  and  could  not  be  suppressed,  and  this  ele- 
ment of  romanticism  he  cultivated  as  his  special  and 
peculiar  field.  He  was  a  born  romanticist  through 
and  through,  in  every  fibre  of  his  being,  and  it  was 
not  at  all  surprising  that  he  took  to  German  roman- 
tic literature  as  his  natural  intellectual  nutriment 
and  stimulus.  His  father's  shop  supplied  the  means 
of  gratifying  this  taste,  and  he  availed  himself  of  his 
privileges  with  the  greatest  avidity. 

But  Schumann,  if  he  worked  only  in  his  own  way, 
did,  nevertheless,  work.  If  he  did  not  plague  him- 
self much  with  Professor  Kuntzsch's  instructions,  he 


i6o 


HISTORY  OF  PIANOFORTE  MUSIC. 


collected  round  him  all  the  music-loving  youths  of 
his  acquaintance,  played  with  them  in  four-hand 
arrangements  a  great  deal  of  Haydn,  Mozart,  Bee- 
thoven, Weber,  Hummel,  Czerny,  in  short,  whatever 
came  to  hand  in  the  way  of  music,  composed  a  great 
deal  in  an  exceedingly  amateurish  sort  of  way,  even 
organized  a  small  orchestra  and  gave  concerts,  he 
conducting  and  filling  in  on  the  pianoforte  the  parts 
which  were  lacking ;  made  attempts  at  literary 
authorship,  too,  wrote  robber-plays  and  produced 
them  on  an  improvised  stage,  and  altogether  showed 
great  and  incessant  intellectual  activity. 

All  this  his  father  encouraged,  and  determining 
to  make  a  musician  of  him,  he  wrote  to  Carl  Maria 
von  Weber,  asking  him  to  take  charge  of  Robert's 
musical  education.  Weber  consented,  readily 
enough,  but  for  some  reason,  the  boy  never  went  to 
him.  He  floundered  along  as  best  he  could,  pursu- 
ing his  school  studies,  his  reading  and  his  music  in 
a  confused,  desultory,  hap-hazard  way,  but  with  a 
vast  amount  of  energy  and  enthusiasm.  He  w^as 
acknowledged  as  the  leading  spirit,  in  the  field  he 
had  chosen,  am.ong  all  the  amateurs  of  Zwickau,  and 
this  acknowledged  pre-eminence  contributed  no 
little  to  confirm  in  him  the  habit  of  self-will  and 
over-confidence  in  his  own  knowledge.  It  is  indeed 
astonishing,  and  a  signal  proof  of  the  greatness  of 
his  gifts,  that  he  should  ever  have  come  to  anything. 

The  first  serious  obstacle  in  the  way  of  his  self- 
chosen  path  had  to  be  met  soon  after  the  death  of 
his  father,  which  occurred  when  he  was  sixteen 


ROBERT  SCHUMANN. 


i6i 


years  old.  His  mother  would  not  hear  of  his  be-  Chap^ix. 
coming  a  musician,  though  she  had  no  objection  to 
his  using  music  as  a  recreation  and  amusement. 
His  guardian,  a  merchant  of  Zwickau,  agreed  with 
her,  and  the  two  decided  that  Robert  must  go  to 
Leipzia:  to  study  law  at  the  university,  as  soon  as  he     sent  to 

^    ^  J  Leipzig  io 

had  graduated  from  the  Zwickau  grammar  school.  To  ^tudy  law. 
Leipzig  accordingly  he  went  in  March,  1828,  and 
seemed  not  indisposed  to  yield  to  his  mother's 
wishes  in  the  matter  of  a  profession.  It  is  probable 
that  he  really  meant  to  attend  the  lectures  on  juris- 
prudence ;  in  fact,  he  made  several  attempts  to  do 
so,  but  he  never  got  farther  than  the  door.  His 
time  was  spent  in  playing  and  composing  music, 
attending  the  Gewandhaus  concerts  and  the  opera, 
making  music  with  a  few  young  student  friends  and 
reading,  mainly  Jean  Paul  Richter,  for  whose  works 
he  had  conceived  a  violent  passion.  He  further 
diversified  his  experience  by  falling  in  love  with 
various  pretty  girls  here  and  there,  a  species  of  sen- 
timental indulgence  to  which  he  was  very  prone  dur- 
ing all  the  early  part  of  his  life,  and  which  seems 
to  have  harmed  no  one,  perhaps  not  even  himself. 
He  also  took  a  journey  to  Heidelberg  durmg  this  , 

,  00  Journey  to 

Spring,  in  company  with  Rosen,  a  young  student  Heidelberg. 
with  whom  he  had  become  sworn  friends,  and  pass- 
ing through  Munich  met  Heinrich  Heine  and  the 
painter  Zimmerman,  from  both  of  whom  he  received 
impressions  which  had  no  little  effect  upon  him. 
Rosen  remained  in  Heidelberg  and  the  two  friends 
began  a  correspondence  in  which  the  eighteen-year 

L  7* 


l62 


HISTORY  OF  PIANOFORTE  MUSIC. 


old  Schumann  appeared  mainly  as  a  gushing  youth, 
running  over  with  Jean  Paulism  and  with  that  pecu- 
liar German  sentimentality  which  never  fails  to 
strike  an  Anglo  Saxon  as  somewhat  ridiculous  and 
contemptible,  but  which  is  perhaps  an  indispensable 
element  of  the  German  "  Gemuethlichkeit,"  and 
possibly  may  even  be  at  the  bottom  of  the  pre-emin- 
ence of  the  German  race  in  the  development  of 
music  as  a  language  of  the  sensibility.*  But  these 
letters  also  contain  premonitions  of  power,  imagina- 
tive and  intellectual,  and  show  the  strong  tendency 
to  fantastic  dreaming  and  romantic  imagining  and 
feeling  which  were  born  in  him  and  were  fostered 
into  luxuriant  growth  by  his  reading  and  associa- 
tions. 

One  of  the  most  healthful  influences  which 
affected  him  during  this  year  in  Leipzig  was  his 
intercourse  with  Friedrick  Wieck  and  his  family. 
Wieck  was  an  extremely  original,  sensible,  active- 
minded  and  successful  music  teacher.  He  had  two 
daughters,  the  elder  of  whom  Schumann  afterward 
married.  She  was  at  this  time  about  nine  years  of 
age  and  was  already  an  accomplished  pianist. 
Wieck  himself  was  a  healthy,  merry,  wholesome  sort 
of  man,  the  reverse  of  the  tearful,  melancholy,  over- 
sentimental  temperament  of  Schumann.  The  young 
student  spent  many  delightful  hours  with  the  fam- 
ily, profited  by  his  intercourse  with  them  in  many 
ways,  and  was   greatly  stimulated  by  the  gifted 


*See  letters  in  the  "  Life  of  Robert  Schumann,"  by  von  Wasielwski, 
translated  by  A.  L.  Alger,  and  published  by  O.  Ditson  &  Co.,  Boston. 


ROBERT  SCHUMANN, 


163 


artist  nature  and  precocious  attainments  of  the  little 
Clara. 

But  this  did  not  last  long.  Robert  left  Leipzig 
for  Heidelberg  in  May,  1829,  ostensibly,  to  attend 
lectures  on  jurisprudence  in  the  university.  What 
he  really  did  was  to  practice  the  piano,  partly  on 
the  basis  of  his  lessons  with  Wieck,  study  and  com- 
pose music,  play  a  great  deal  in  a  select  circle  of  his 
student  friends  and  a  little  in  public,  and  devote 
himself  almost  exclusively  to  his  musical  and  liter- 
ary pursuits.  The  most  significant  compositions  of 
this  year  which  now  remain  to  us  were  numbers  i, 
3,  4,  6  and  8  of  the  "  Papillons,"  a  series  of  short 
pieces  intended  to  reproduce  the  impressions  of  dif- 
ferent scenes  and  incidents  at  a  masked  ball. 

He  does  not  seem  to  have  yet  arrived  at  any  de- 
cision as  to  whether  he  would  ultimately  pursue  the 
career  of  a  professional  musician  ;  he  simply  drifted 
along,  yielding  to  the  impulses  which  moved  him  in 
the  line  of  musical  activity  and  almost  wholly  neg- 
lecting his  law  studies,  for  which  he  felt  an  uncon- 
querable aversion.  But  matters  could  not  go  on  so. 
At  the  end  of  the  school  year  something  had  to  be 
settled,  and  by  this  time  he  had  thoroughly  made 
up  his  mind  as  to  his  course.  He  wrote  to  his 
mother,  July  30,  1830,  informing  her  of  his  unwill- 
ingness to  continue  his  law  studies  and  his  desire  to 
devote  himself  to  music,  begged  her  to  write  to 
Wieck  for  his  opinion  as  to  the  wisdom  of  his 
change  of  plan,  and  promised  to  abide  by  his  old 
teacher's  decision.     The  letter  was  modest  and 


164 


HISTORY  OF  PIANOFORTE  MUSIC. 


respectful,  but  very  decided,  and  his  mother,  unwill- 
ingly enough,  complied  with  his  request.  Wieck's 
reply  settled  the  matter.  He  assured  Mme.  Schu- 
mann that  Robert  had  abilities  which  warranted 
him  in  expecting  to  become  a  great  musician,  and 
advised  that  he  be  thoroughly  educated  with  this 
end  in  view. 

The  result  of  it  was  that  in  a  few  weeks  he  was 
again  in  Leipzig  under  the  guidance  of  his  old  in- 
structor, than  whom  no  more  competent  man  could 
have  been  selected.  He  took  up  his  residence  in 
Wieck's  house,  planning  for  a  thorough  course  of 
study  of  the  pianoforte.  But  this  soon  came  to  an 
end  by  his  ill-advised  attempts  to  shorten  the  pro- 
cess of  technical  attainment.  Just  what  were  the 
mechanical  appliances  he  used  for  this  purpose  no 
one  seems  to  know,  but,  at  any  rate,  his  right  hand 
became  permanently  lame,  and  he  was  forced  to 
turn  his  attention  exclusively  to  composition.  His 
previous  efforts  in  this  field,  although  exhibiting 
innate  power  and  originality,  and  displaying  the 
peculiar  bent  of  his  mind,  had  been  crude,  and  he 
himself  had  begun  to  see  the  necessity  of  solid  theo- 
retical study  and  practice.  By  Wieck's  advice  he 
put  himself  under  the  instruction  of  Heinrich  Dorn, 
then  conductor  of  the  opera  and  a  sound  musician, 
and  entered  upon  the  study  of  harmony  and  coun- 
terpoint with  great  enthusiasm. 

His  lessons  with  Dorn  profited  him  greatly,  but 
he  was  nearly  twenty-two  years  old  and  had  lost 
much  precious  time.    At  the  same  age  Mendelssohn 


ROBERT  SCHUMANN. 


165 


was  one  of  the  most  accomplished  musicians  in  Chap^ix. 
Europe,  while  Schumann  found  that  the  years  in 
which  it  might  have  been  possible  for  him  to  acquire 
a  similar  mastery  of  the  technic  of  composition  had 
passed  forever.  He  never  gained  any  such  freedom 
and  facility  of  expression  or  command  of  his  musi- 
cal materials  as  characterized  his  future  colleague  in 
the  Leipzig  conservatory. 

Schumann  soon  left  Wieck's  house,  though  his  Hisman- 
intimacy  with  the  family  continued,  and  lived  much  social  reia- 
as  other  students  did.  He  worked  hard  days  and 
devoted  his  evenings  to  recreation  with  his  friends. 
Socially  he  was  reserved,  or  rather  impassive,  un- 
responsive, and  to  all  outward  appearance  apathetic; 
but  his  intimates  knew  that  this  lethargic  exterior 
covered  a  sensibility  extremely  open  to  impressions 
of  every  sort,  a  keen  and  subtle  perception,  a  vigor- 
ous intellect,  a  strong  sense  of  humor,  a  vivid 
imagination  especially  delighting  in  the  fantastic  and 
the  fanciful,  and  strong,  deep  feeling. 

These  qualities  found  their  fullest  revelation  and 
most  characteristic  embodiment  in  his  music.  His 
"Papillons"  ("Butterflies"),  op.  2,  begun  in  Heidel-  ^i^l'^^"^' 
berg  and  finished  in  Leipzig  in  1831,  are  thoroughly  ^■'l^f^'^^^^^' 
characteristic  of  his  nature  and  tendencies.  They 
are,  in  form,  a  mere  series  of  short  pieces,  some  of 
them  of  no  great  intrinsic  significance,  but  with  a 
poetic  intention  underlying  the  separate  pieces  and 
the  arrangement  of  them,  to  which  Schumann  has 
given  us  a  clue  only  by  a  hint  or  two,  and  by  a  few 
words  of  explanation  in  the  last  number  of  the  series. 


HISTORY  OF  PIANOFORTE  MUSIC. 


But  this  last  is  sufficient  to  show  clearly  that  he 
intended  these  pieces  to  express  different  phases 
of  feeling  induced  by  the  scenes  of  a  masquerade. 

The  short  opening  number  seems  to  express  the 
mood  appropriate  to  the  first  impression  made  by 
the  lighted  ball-room  with  its  throng  of  pleasure 
seekers;  No.  2  shows  us  the  antics  of  a  harlequin; 
No.  3,  a  general  promenade  or  procession  of  the 
maskers;  No.  7,  a  tender  dialogue  between  two 
lovers,  followed  in  No.  8  by  the  most  blissful  of 
waltzes,  thoroughly  poetic  and  profoundly  suggest- 
ive; No.  1 2  shows  us  the  party  breaking  up  during  the 
final  dancing  of  the  Grandfather  "  minuet;  while 
the  town  clock  strikes  six,  the  sounds  gradually  die 
away  one  after  the  other.  The  remaining  numbers 
are  much  less  suggestive  of  definite  scenes,  but 
those  above  mentioned  can  hardly  be  mistaken. 

These  "  Papillons  "  are  interesting  and  important 
mainly  as  showing  the  bent  of  his  mind  toward  con- 
necting his  music  with  more  or  less  definitely  con- 
ceived scenes.  This  tendency  shows  itself  plainly 
in  many  of  his  works,  notably  in  the  Davidsbuendler, 
op.  6  ;  The  Carnival,  op.  9  ;  the  Fantasy  pieces, 
op.  12  ;  the  Scenes  from  Childhood,  op.  15;  the 
Vienna  Carnival  Pranks,  op.  26;  the  Album  for 
Youth,  op.  68;  the  Forest  Scenes,  op.  82,  and  the 
Album  Leaves,  op.  124.  It  is  true,  he  himself  has 
cautioned  us,  somewhat  obscurely,  against  carrying 
our  literalness  of  interpretation  too  far,  saying  that 
some  of  the  titles  in  the  Scenes  from  Childhood 
were  added  after  the  pieces  were  written,  instead  of 


ROBERT  SCHUMANN. 


167 


serving  beforehand  as  images  which  raised  the  feel- 
ings embodied  in  the  music.  But  his  applying  the 
titles  showed  that  he  considered  them  sufficiently- 
appropriate  to  serve  as  more  or  less  accurate  guides 
and  helps  in  interpretation,  and  proves  none  the  less 
conclusively  the  poetic  tendency  of  his  mind,  and 
his  proneness  to  link  scenes  and  feelings  together  in 
his  music.  That  he  often  did  not  connect  them 
except  in  a  vague  way  is  thoroughly  characteristic. 

Schumann  was  a  strong  but  not  a  clear  thinker, 
and  seldom  attained  complete  mastery  of  his 
thought  or  definite,  clear,  finished  expression,  either 
in  music  or  in  literary  composition.  His  was  one  of 
those  somewhat  exasperating  yet  stimulating  minds, 
of  which  so  many  are  to  be  found  even  among  the 
greatest  poets  and  philosophers  of  Germany,  whose 
ideas  are  hopelessly  befogged,  although  they  evi- 
dently have  ideas  extremely  significant  and  perhaps 
all  the  more  attractive  that  they  are  incompletely 
revealed.  These  minds  struggle  with  their  thought, 
they  show  unquestionable  power,  and  the  very  vio- 
lence of  the  effort  convinces  us  of  the  greatness  of 
the  ideas;  but  they  are  never  completely  triumphant; 
they  never  fully  succeed  in  dragging  out  into  clear 
daylight  and  exhibiting  in  its  full  proportions 
what  they  have  discovered;  more  remains  than  they 
themselves  have  perceived,  much  less  displayed  to 
others;  the  whole  is  attractive  but  tantalizing.  This 
will  be  best  appreciated  by  those  who  have  tried  to 
make  their  way  through  the  obscure  pages  of  Hegel 
in  the  hope  of  understanding  him.     Such  are  apt 


i68 


HISTORY  OF  PIANOFORTE  MUSIC. 


to  come  away  convinced  that  the  great  philosopher 
was  a  long  way  from  understanding  his  own  writing, 
but  also  convinced  that  he  had  found  much  worth 
understanding,  and  feeling  that,  on  the  whole,  the 
attempt  had  been  a  bracing,  stimulating  intellectual 
effort,  not  without  result  in  increase  of  strength  and 
enlargement  of  ideas 

Schumann  undoubtedly  aimed  often,  if  not  gen- 
erally, at  the  utmost  definiteness  of  emotional  ex- 
pression, and  often  aimed,  too,  at  suggesting  definite 
images  by  means  of  expressing  in  tones  the  emo- 
tional impression  made  by  such  images.  So  that  when 
he  inscribes  a  title  which  irresistibly  suggests  a 
scene  or  event,  we  are  fairly  entitled  to  follow  out 
the  connection  with  the  music  as  definitely  as 
we  can,  in  the  absence  of  information  or  direction 
to  the  contrary.  Enough  will  remain  obscure  when 
we  have  found  every  imaginable  point  of  contact. 

It  is  perhaps  not  important  here  to  mention 
Schumann's  minor  compositions  in  detail.  Those 
between  the  "  Papillons  "  and  the  "  Etudes  Sym- 
phoniques,"  op.  13,  are  of  comparatively  little 
importance.  These  "  Etudes,  in  the  form  of  Varia- 
tions," were  written  in  1834,  and  are  not  only  a  great 
advance  on  any  of  his  previous  works  but  are 
among  the  most  profoundly  significant  and  atractive 
of  all  his  compositions.  The  gain  is  not  specially 
in  clearness  of  statement,  but  in  fertility  of  inven- 
tion, in  wealth  of  suggestion  and  in  the  irresistible 
impression  of  depth  and  power  of  feeling,  intellect 
and  character  which  they  make.    In  these  there  is 


ROBERT  SCHUMANN. 


169 


no  trace  of  the  lachrymose  sentimentality  so  plenti- 
ful in  his  letters  ;  the  Schumann  of  the  "  Etudes 
Symphoniques  "  is  hardly  to  be  recognized  as  the 
author  of  the  letters  to  Henrietta  Voigt  on  pages  88- 
90  of  Wasielwski's  Life,  for  example;  there  is,  to  be 
sure,  the  same  fantastic,  obscure  imagining  and 
moods  more  or  less  akin,  but  the  music  is  vastly 
stronger  and  more  manly  than  the  letters  appear  to 
be.  Yet  both  are  productions  of  the  same  man  at 
about  the  same  time. 

In  form,  these  "  Etudes,"  though  called  "  varia- 
tions "  are  very  far  from  conforming  to  the  accepted 
models,  and  indeed  most  of  them  have  so  little 
formal  relation  to  the  theme  that  the  term  "variation" 
is  almost  a  misnomer.  They  are  rather  Schumann's 
comments  on  the  original  subject  (which,  by  the 
way,  is  not  his  own,  but  was  written  by  the  father  of 
of  one  of  his  young  lady  friends.  Baroness  Ernestine 
von  Fricken) — pieces  suggested  to  his  imagination 
by  the  mood  of  this  theme. 

This  work  was  immediately  followed  by  the  "Car- 
nival," op.  9,  another  attempt  to  express  in  short 
pieces  a  series  of  moods  appropriate  to  a  masquer- 
ade. The  two  Sonatas,  op.  11  and  op.  22,  belong 
to  the  year  1835.  They  are  much  less  successful 
than  the  pieces  just  mentioned.  Schumann  was  no 
master  either  of  the  sonata  form  or  of  the  art  of  the- 
matic treatment,  and  his  genius  was  hampered  by  the 
classical  harness.  The  op.  22  is  much  the  better 
of  the  two. 

Between  this  time  and  the  time  of  his  marriage  to 

8 


HISTORY  OF  PIANOFORTE  MUSIC. 


Clara  Wieck,  in  1840,  he  wrote  the  "  Kreisleriana," 
op.  16  (so  named  from  their  imaginary  connection 
with  Kapellmeister  Kreisler,  in  E.  T.  A.  Hoffmann's 
fantastic  romance,  Kater  Murr "),  the  noble 
"Fantasia,"  op.  17;  the  "  Novelettes,"  op.  21,  the 
"Fantasy  Pieces,"  op.  12;  the  "Scenes  from  Child- 
hood," op.  15;  "Arabeske,"  op.  18;  "  Flower  Piece," 
op.  19;  "  Humoreske,"  op.  20;  "Night  Pieces.  '  op. 
23;  "Vienna  Carnival  Pranks,"  op.  26,  and  other 
pieces  of  minor  importance. 

This  list  comprises  nearly  all  his  significant  works 
for  the  pianoforte  alone.  They  were  largely  the 
product  of  a  time  of  mental  agitation  due  to  his 
love  affairs.  He  had  wished  to  marry  Ernestine 
von  Fricken  and  had  been  very  intimate  with  her 
when  she  lived  at  Wieck's.  But  for  some  unex- 
plained reason  the  connection  was  broken  off,  she 
went  home,  Schumann  fell  under  Wieck's  displea- 
sure and  ceased  to  visit  the  family.  Meanwhile  he 
fell  in  love  with  Clara,  and  after  a  while  she  recipro- 
cated his  affections,  but  her  father  would  never  con- 
sent to  receive  Schumann  as  his  son-in-law.  When 
the  young  couple  finally  did  marry,  Schumann  had 
to  resort  to  the  courts  to  get  possession  of  his 
bride. 

But  Schumann's  love  affairs  and  activity  in  com- 
position by  no  means  occupied  all  his  attention. 
He  was  thoroughly  disgusted  with  the  shallow  criti- 
cism and  the  equally  shallow  appreciation  of  music 
at  that  time  prevalent  in  Leipzig  and  elsewhere. 
The  popular  pianoforte  composers  were  Kalkbrenner, 


ROBERT  SCHUMANN. 


171 


Huenten,  Herz,  Czerny  and  men  of  that  stamp,  whose 
only  merit  consisted  in  a  certain  amount  of  pleasing 
melodiousness  without  depth  of  feeling  or  intelli- 
gence. These  were,  in  university  student  parlance, 
"  Philistines,"  the  natural  enemies  of  originality, 
genius,  and  the  vigorous  individual  life  which  char- 
acterized the  young  Romanticists. 

Against  all  pedants,  shallow,  self-seeking  virtuosi 
and  empty  -  headed,  frivolous  pianoforte  ticklers 
Schumann  determined  to  wage  vigorous  war,  and 
entered  the  field  of  criticism.  In  1834  he,  in 
company  with  a  few  like-minded  associates,  among 
whom  was  Wieck,  founded  the  "  New  Journal 
of  Music "  (Neue  Zeitschrift  fuer  Musik),  and 
edited  it  for  ten  years.  It  at  once  became  a  great 
power  in  musical  matters,  profoundly  influenced 
public  opinion,  and  introduced  to  Germany  many 
new  writers,  among  them  Chopin,  Berlioz,  Gade, 
Stephen  Heller,  Adolph  Henseult,  Robert  Franz  and 
Sterndale  Bennett.  Schumann's  own  writing  was 
much  of  it  fantastic  and  fanciful;  he  personified  the 
two  sides  of  his  nature  under  the  names  of  Flor- 
estan  and  Euseblus,  and  his  associates  Wieck  and 
Carl  Banck  under  those  of  Raro  and  Serpentinus^ 
and  these  imaginary  characters  are  continually  ap- 
pearing in  the  pages  of  the  journal.     The  name 

Davidsbuendler  "  or  "David  and  his  confederates" 
also  appears,  and  his  "  Carnival"  contains  a  ''March 
of  the  Davidsbuendler  against  the  Philistines."  But 
if  he  wrote  fancifully  and  more  or  less  obscurely, 
his  criticisms  are  almost  always  striking  and  suggest- 


172 


HISTORY  OF  PIANOFORTE  MUSIC. 


ive,  and  many  of  them  are  very  clear  and  forcible. 
Most  of  them  have  been  translated  into  English  by 
Mrs.  Fanny  Raymond  Ritter,  and  are  published  in 
two  volumes  under  the  title  "  Music  and  Musicians." 
To  these  the  reader  is  referred  for  further  knowl- 
edge of  Schumann's  work  as  a  critic. 

From  the  date  of  his  marriage,  Schumann's  work 
as  a  composer  concerns  this  history  but  little.  In 
that  year  his  emotions  found  vent  in  the  production 
of  a  large  number  of  songs,  some  of  them  among 
the  most  poetic  and  imaginative  ever  written,  truth- 
ful in  characterization,  surcharged  with  profound 
feeling,  and  of  great  beauty.  He  then  began  to 
write  for  orchestra,  and  henceforth  to  the  end  of  his 
life  the  piano  occupied  with  him  a  subordinate  place. 
But  among  the  comparatively  few  pianoforte  com- 
positions of  the  last  sixteen  years  of  his  life,  there 
are  three  very  important  ones.  These  are  the  Piano- 
forte Quintet,  op.  44,  the  Quartet,  op.  47  and  the 
A  minor  concerto,  op.  54,  all  of  them  beautiful,  sig- 
nificant and  original;  so  much  so,  indeed,  that  they 
can  hardly  be  said  to  have  been  surpassed  in  power 
by  even  Beethoven's  best  work,  though  they  fall  far 
short  of  the  finish  of  the  older  master.  Besides  his 
songs  and  orchestral  w^ork  he  also  wrote  an  opera, 
"  Genevieve,"  which  shows  great  creative  power, 
but  has  fatal  defects  as  a  musical  drama,  and  two 
cantatas,  one  "  Paradise  and  the  Peri,"  founded  on 
an  episode  in  Moore's  "  Lalla  Rookh,"  and  the  other 
an  adaption  of  Byron's  "  Manfred,"  besides  works 
of  minor  importance. 


ROBERT  SCHUMANN. 


In  1843,  at  Mendelssohn's  invitation,  he  joined 
him  as  a  teacher  of  composition,  etc.,  in  the  newly 
founded  Leipzig  conservatory.  But  this  connection 
did  not  long  continue.  Schumann  was  no  teacher  ; 
had  no  power  of  expressing  ideas  in  speech  or  of 
communicating  information  ;  was  always  silent,  and 
apparently  apathetic  in  the  class-room  as  in  society. 
This  tendency  even  increased  after  his  marriage. 

In  his  domestic  relations  he  was  happy.  Clara 
Schumann  was  a  woman  of  genius,  the  daughter  of 
a  man  who  had  known  how  to  develop  her  gifts  in 
the  wisest  way ;  her  culture  was  broad  and  deep  ; 
she  was,  and  still  remains  (1883),  at  past  sixty,  one 
of  the  greatest  and  finest  of  interpretative  artists  in  an 
age  exceptionally  productive  of  great  virtuosi ;  she 
was  not  only  exceptionally  fitted  to  be  the  compan- 
ion of  a  great  creative  mind  like  Robert  Schumann's 
in  all  his  intellectual  and  artistic  interests  and  activ- 
ities, but  was  a  domestic,  homelike  wife  and  mother, 
who  stood  between  her  husband  and  outside  annoy- 
ances and  interruptions,  made  a  delightful,  happy, 
restful  home  for  him  and  their  eight  children,  and 
was  in  every  way  a  woman  who  commanded  and  still 
commands  the  respect,  admiration  and  love  of  all 
who  have  the  felicity  of  knowing  her  personally,  as 
well  as  of  thousands  who  only  know  her  by  her 
admirable  performances  and  her  reputation.  The 
present  writer  looks  back  upon  some  concerts  of 
hers  with  the  Gewandhaus  orchestra,  some  sixteen 
years  ago,  as  among  the  greatest  privileges  and 
most  delightful  experiences  of  his  life. 


Chap.'IX. 

His 

connection 
luith  the 
Leipzig 
Conserva- 
tory. 


Character 
of  his  wife 


174 


HISTORY  OF  PIANOFORTE  MUSIC. 


With  such  domestic  surroundings  it  is  not  to  be 
wondered  at  that  Schumann  felt  less  than  ever  any 
inclination  for  general  society.  He  stayed  at  home 
and  devoted  himself  to  composition,  occasionally 
going  on  a  concert  tour  with  his  wife,  who  still 
desired  to  play  in  public. 

In  1844,  Schumann  gave  up  his  paper  and  re- 
moved to  Dresden.  He  had  already  begun  to  feel 
the  disease  which  finally  destroyed  his  reason  and 
his  life  ;  it  was  afterwards  found  to  be  an  abnormal 
growth  of  bone  into  the  substance  of  the  brain  ;  it 
caused  him  intense  pain  and  occasioned  a  morbid 
state  of  feeling  and  of  mental  activity.  In  1850  he 
was  called  to  Duesseldorf  as  director  of  concerts 
and  church  music  and  accepted  the  post.  But  he 
was  never  a  good  conductor,  and  the  progress  of  his 
disease  made  him  even  less  successful  than  formerly, 
so  that  after  some  three  years,  a  period  prolonged 
somewhat  out  of  consideration  for  his  feelings,  the 
connection  terminated. 

He  had  almost  reached  the  end.  Decided  symp- 
toms of  insanity  developed  more  and  more  rapidly 
and  culminated  in  an  attempt  at  suicide.  On  Feb- 
ruary 27,  1854,  while  sitting  in  social  intercourse 
with  his  physician  and  another  friend,  he  left  the 
room,  without  a  word,  went  to  the  bridge  and  threw 
himself  into  the  Rhine.  He  was  rescued,  but  his 
mind  was  gone.  He  was  removed  to  a  private 
asylum  near  Bonn,  and  died  there  July  29,  1856. 

A  brief  comparison  of  the  three  great  composers 
whose  creative  activity  determined  the  course  of 


Chap.  IX. 

Schu- 
manrt's 
domestic 
happiness. 


His  Con- 

ductorship 
at  Duessel- 
dorf. 


Insanity 
and  deatht 


ROBERT  SCHUMANN. 


Musical  History  in  the  Romantic  Epoch  must  close 
this  chapter.  All  three  were  subjective  ;  each  con- 
sciously and  deliberately  sought  to  reproduce  his 
emotional  life  in  tones  ;  each  embodied  in  his  com- 
positions his  most  peculiar  experiences  ;  so  that  in 
the  music  of  each  is  revealed  his  innermost  life  and 
character. 

Of  the  three,  Mendelssohn  was  the  most  healthy 
and  wholesome  ;  dealt  less  with  social  emotions  of 
the  feverish,  abnormally  exciting  sort ;  was  closer  to 
nature,  too,  and  to  the  healthiest  literature.  His 
Midsummer  Night's  Dream  music  is  perhaps  his 
most  characteristic  work,  where  he  deals  with  nature 
in  her  romantic  aspects  ;  his  imagination  is  kindled 
by  the  solemn  grandeur  of  the  forest,  the  mysterious 
gloom  and  silence  of  night,  broken  only  by  the  cry 
of  night  birds  and  of  insects,  the  dewy,  moonlit 
glades,  the  flowery  nooks,  the  thick  coverts,  the  fairy 
train  of  Oberon  and  Titania,  with  mischievous  Puck 
and  the  other  attendants,  the  lovers  whose  transitory 
mishaps  only  enhance  the  charm  of  the  scene,  the 
clumsy  clowns  rehearsing  their  play.  Bottom,  with 
the  ass's  head  and  the  fairy  queen's  ridiculous  infat- 
uation with  him. 

But  hardly  less  characteristic  are  his  lovely, 
romantic  four-part  songs,  his  overtures  and  sympho- 
nies. The  love  of  natural  scenery  reappears  in 
these  works  and  in  the  Walpurgis  Night,  and  his 
oratorios  show  a  noble,  elevated  religious  life,  such 
as  nowhere  appears  in  Schumann  or  Chopin,  The 
majestic  figure  of  the  Prophet  and  the  fiery  enthusi- 


176 


HISTORY  OF  PIANOFORTE  MUSIC. 


Chap.  IX. 


Chopin, 


His  emo- 
tions caused 
by  the  ex- 
citements 
of  worldly 
society. 


asm  of  the  Apostle  inspired  him  as  no  similar  char- 
acters affected  his  two  romantic  contemporaries. 
The  social  emotions,  too,  expressed  in  his  songs, 
with  and  without  words,  are  natural  and  under 
rational  control,  never  become  overmastering  pas- 
sions, are  always  the  revelation  of  a  happy,  sunny, 
joyous,  yet  serious  and  thoughtful  nature. 

Chopin,  on  the  other  hand,  has  little  apparent 
relation  either  to  nature  or  to  religion.  His  emo- 
tional life  is  conditioned  solely  on  social  relations, 
and  those  not  alw^ays  of  the  healthiest  or  most  ele- 
vated. He  is  sometimes  morbidly  intense,  delirious, 
passionate ;  there  is  pleasure  intoxicating  to  the 
verge  of  delirium  ;  his  pain,  grief  and  despair  occa- 
sionally border  on  insanity  ;  in  short,  the  passions 
of  Polish  and  Parisian  society,  the  whole  emotional 
life  of  a  passionate,  worldly,  intellectual,  refined, 
luxurious,  pleasure-seeking  aristocracy  is  mirrored 
in  his  music.  It  impresses  us,  too,  with  a  sense  of 
what  it  would  be  somewhat  unjust  to  call  weakness 
or  effeminacy  ;  it  is  rather  a  deficiency  of  robustness 
and  virility,  a  character  tender,  refined,  almost  fem- 
inine, but  yet  with  a  vast  reserve  fund  of  power  and 
with  a  certain  positiveness  and  vigor  which  goes  far 
to  make  up  for  his  over-sensitiveness  and  suscepti- 
bility to  outside  influences. 

Above  all,  Chopin  is  always  an  artist;  his  sense  of 
beauty  is  keen  and  subtle;  his  feeling  for  form  is  an 
unerring  instinct;  his  power  of  invention,  both  in 
melody  and  harmony,  is  unsurpassed;  and  the  ex- 
quisite beauty  of  many,  indeed  most,  of  his  works 


ROBERT  SCHUMANN. 


will  for  long  remain  a  source  of  delight  to  connois- 
seurs. 

Schumann's  greatest  deficiencies,  as  already 
pointed  out,  are  lack  of  clearness,  defmiteness,  con- 
centration, and  imperfect  mastery  of  his  means  of 
expression.  What  he  had  to  express,  however,  was 
an  emotional  life  more  virile,  robust,  powerful  than 
that  of  either  Chopin  or  Mendelssohn.  The  fire  of 
Chopin's  passion  glowed  with  equal  intensity,  but 
the  impulse  it  gave  was  more  fitful  and  spasmodic. 
Schumann's  feeling  rushes  on  with  all-compelling, 
resistless  force;  even  when  imperfectly  revealed  it  is 
Titanic;  if  we  sometimes  get  no  more  than  glimpses 
of  his  passion,  even  these  convince  us  that  there  is 
not  only  intensity  but  a  mass  of  heat,  like  a  vast 
furnace  full  of  molten  metal,  from  which  indeed  run 
great  masses  of  slag  and  dross,  but  these  are  the 
very  result  and  product  of  huge  purification. 
With  all  his  passion,  his  intense  longing,  strong 
out-reaching  desire,  earnest  striving,  headlong  im- 
pulse, there  is  a  sense  of  repose  which  comes  only 
from  the  working  of  a  great  force. 

The  passion  of  Chopin  is  violent,  rushing,  impet- 
uous, but  carries  less  weight.  Or,  to  change  the 
figure — Schumann's  passion  rolls  in  great,  deep-sea 
waves,  which  break  on  rocky  cliffs  in  thunderous 
roar  of  overwhelming  surf  ;  Chopin's  is  a  narrow 
tropical  sea,  beautiful  in  calm  and  sunshine,  but 
fruitful  of  sudden  hurricanes  and  violent  storms,  of 
deafening  thunder  and  blinding  electric  flashes; 
Mendelssohn's  is  an  inland  lake,  not  too  deep  to  be 


178 


HISTORY  OF  PIANOFORTE  MUSIC. 


Chap.  IX. 


easily  fathomed,  with  charming,  quiet  bays  and  en- 
ticing nooks  haunted  by  sprites  and  elves,  a  veritable 
fairy  domain,  the  abode  of  grace  and  beauty.  All 
three  are  to  be  counted  among  the  world's  great  and 
precious  treasures.  "  Romantic  "  they  are,  certainly; 
but  if  it  can  ever  be  possible  to  judge  of  the  per- 
manence of  any  contemporary  Art,  then  may  we 
surely  expect  that  these  three  great  masters  will  by 
and  by  be  counted  as  "  classics."  At  any  rate  their 
place  in  musical  history  is  unmistakable. 


PART  FOURTH. 


The  Deyelopmeistt  of  Piaisto- 

FORTE  TeCHJSTIC. 


CHAPTER  X. 


THE  TECHNIC  OF  THE  FIRST  CLASSICAL  PERIOD. 


When  the  harpsichord  was  invented  we  know  not. 
But  we  do  know  that  the  organ  preceded  it.  The 
harpsichord  seems  to  have  been,  at  first,  a  mere 
household  substitute  for  the  organ,  which  latter 
instrument  was,  of  course,  too  large  and  expensive 
to  be  used  anywhere  except  in  churches,  monas- 
teries and  other  large  places  for  public  assemblies. 
The  harpsichord  was  at  first  a  resource  of  organists 
for  home  practice  and  gradually  found  its  way  into 
popular  use. 

At  first,  organ  music  was  transferred  to  it,  and  no 
account  was  taken  of  its  peculiar  capabilities.  For 
a  long  time  pieces  were  written  "  for  the  organ  or 
harpsichord,"  and  even  at  the  time  of  Bach  and 
Haendel  harpsichord  players  were  almost  always 
organists  as  well.  And  not  only  so,  but  these  play- 
ers seem  to  have  considered  the  organ  as  so  much 
superior  that  they  devoted  little  attention  to  the 
harpsichord,  regarding  it  as  a  mere  auxiliary,  subor- 
dinate to  their  main  interests. 

But  the  striking  difference  between  the  capacities 
of  the  two  instruments  must  have  suggested  to  some 
of  these  players  that  there  might  be  something  in 
the  harpsichord  worth  cultivating.  So  long  as  scien- 


Chai'.  X. 

Relation 
of  the 
harpsi- 
chord to  the 
organ. 


Beginningi 
of  harpsi- 
chord 
music 
proper. 


l82 


HISTORY  OF  PIANOFORTE  MUSIC. 


tific  music  was  almost  exclusively  confined  to  the 
service  of  the  church,  so  long  the  organ  retained  its 
exclusive  supremacy.  But  when  opera  was  invented, 
in  the  sixteenth  century,  and  the  harpsichord  not 
only  came  into  prominent  use  in  the  orchestra,  but 
had  to  serve  for  the  accompaniments  of  recitatives 
and  arias,  its  importance  increased.  Compositions 
began  to  be  written  which  took  into  account  its 
special  peculiarities ;  its  evanescent  tones,  its  lack 
of  sonority  and  its  lightness  and  shallowness  of 
touch  as  compared  with  the  clumsy  actions  of  the 
organs  of  the  period. 

The  shortness  of  the  tones  precluded  the  cultiva- 
tion of  the  lyric  quality  and  suggested  the  appropri- 
ateness of  rapid  passages  as  the  staple  element  of 
compositions  intended  for  that  instrument.  When 
tones  had  to  be  prolonged  they  were  trilled  or  fur- 
nished with  turns,  mordents,  prall-trills  or  appoggia- 
turas.  These  were  borrowed  from  the  vocal  embell- 
ishments of  the  time,  but  were  not  mere  ornaments, 
as  in  the  case  of  arias,  etc.  ;  they  served  to  supply 
the  defect  of  shortness  of  tone  in  the  instrument, 
and  so  were  an  important  element  in  harpsichord 
music. 

The  second  peculiarity,  lack  of  sonority,  owing  to 
the  lightness  of  the  strings  and  the  impossibility  of 
producing  a  powerful  tone  by  plucking  a  string  with 
a  quill,  precluded  any  broad,  majestic  effects,  and 
contributed  to  the  adoption  of  light  and  rapid  pass- 
ages and  embellishments  as  the  main  peculiarities  of 
harpsichord  music. 


TECHNIC  OF  THE  FIRST  CLASSICAL  PERIOD. 


183 


Lastly,  the  lightness  of  the  action  pointed  in  the 
same  direction. 

Harpsichord  technic,  then,  involved  light  and 
rapid  playing  of  scales  and  arpeggios  and  of  all 
sorts  of  finger  passages,  including  trills  and  other 
embellishments.  It  required  independence  and  flex- 
ibility of  the  fingers  and  great  dexterity,  but  not 
strength. 

But  there  was  no  employment  of  extended  scales 
and  arpeggios  as  there  is  in  our  modern  music.  In 
the  first  place,  these  instruments  were  much  smaller 
in  compass  than  our  modern  pianofortes,  rarely 
exceeding  five  octaves. 

Then,  too,  the  prevalent  music  was  polyphonic, 
and  extended  passages  were  impossible  in  fugue 
playing.  Each  hand  had  generally  to  perform  two 
or  more  voice-parts  at  the  same  time,  and  this 
involved  the  necessity  of  writing  them  within  a  nar- 
row range  of  notes. 

It  was  perhaps  owing  to  this  fact  that  the  finger- 
ing of  single  scale  passages  in  vogue  at  that  time 
was  so  crude  and  clumsy.  As  late  as  the  last 
decade  of  the  seventeenth  century  the  rules  laid 
down  in  the  instruction  books  for  fingering  scales 
required  them  to  be  played  with  two  fingers  only  ; 
the  third  (middle)  and  fourth  in  ascending  aud  the 
third  and  second  in  descending. 

The  use  of  all  five  fingers  was  a  result  of  the 
development  of  monophonic  playing,  or,  what  is,  for 
technical  purposes,  the  same  thing,  of  the  employ- 
ment of  long  passages  for  only  one  voice  for  a  single 


HISTORY  OF  PIANOFORTE  MUSIC. 


hand,  in  free  polyphony.  The  hand,  not  being  ham- 
pered by  the  necessity  of  playing  two  or  more 
voices,  could  indulge  in  much  greater  freedom  of 
execution,  and  out  of  this  gradually  came  florid 
monophony,  culminating  at  last  in  our  day  in  the 
difficult  passages  of  Thalberg,  Liszt  and  others. 

Of  this  style  of  free  polyphony  involving  florid 
monophonic  passages  Sebastian  Bach  was  as  great  a 
master  as  he  was  of  strict  polyphonic  playing.  In 
the  latter  he  was  unrivaled.  He  was  not  only  the 
greatest  composer  of  fugues,  but  the  greatest  player 
of  fugues.  In  the  art  of  delivering  several  melo- 
dies simultaneously  he  surpassed  all  his  predeces- 
sors and  contemporaries.  This  art  involved  the  fre- 
quent changing  of  fingers  on  one  key  and  the  slid- 
ing of  the  fingers  from  one  key  to  another,  so  as  to 
produce  a  perfect  connection  between  the  tones. 

The  greatest  defect  of  the  harpsichord  for  fugue 
playing  was  the  impossibility  of  discriminative  em- 
phasis. The  clavichord  was  somewhat  superior  in 
this  respect.  It  was  possible  to  make  some  slight 
difference  in  the  power  of  the  tones  of  this  instru- 
ment, to  emphasize  somewhat  the  entrance  of  a 
fugue  subject  or  answer,  and  to  discriminate  one 
melody  or  passage  from  another  by  greater  or  less 
force  of  delivery.  Above  all,  it  was  superior  to  the 
harpsichord  in  lyric  quality,  in  the  possibility  of  pro- 
longing the  tones  beyond  a  mere  tinkle,  and  impart- 
ing to  them  something  of  singing  effect. 

Accordingly,  the  clavichord  was  a  favorite  instru- 
ment with  Sebastian  Bach,  as  having  finer  artistic 


TECHNIC  OF  THE  FIRST  CLASSICAL  PERIOD. 


capabilities  than  either  the  harpsichord  or  the  piano-  Chap^x. 
fortes  of  his  day.  The  action  of  the  latter  was  still 
too  imperfect  and  clumsy  to  satisfy  his  requirements. 
The  mechanism  of  the  pianoforte  is  necessarily 
complicated,  and  it  was  thirty  or  forty  years  after 
Bach's  death  before  it  finally  superseded  the  older 
instruments. 

Sebastian  Bach's  technic,  then,  was  the  technic  of  Bach's 
the  harpsichord,  and  especially  of  the  clavichord. 
In  him  polyphonic  playing,  as  well  as  polyphonic 
writing,  culminated.  All  that  could  be  done  on  the 
instruments  of  his  time  he  did.  He  attained  the 
utmost  independence  of  finger,  the  utmost  ease, 
lightness,  fluency  ;  his  dexterity  in  interweaving  con- 
trapuntal parts  was  perfection  itself;  he  employed  all 
five  fingers  in  passages  when  they  could  be  used  to 
advantage,  disregarding  the  pedantic  rules  of  his 
time  ;  he  made  the  most  of  the  lyric  capabilities  of 
the  clavichord.  In  short,  like  most  original  minds, 
he  was  an  innovator,  discovering  all  the  possibilities 
of  the  instruments  he  used  and  inventing  new 
means  of  accomplishing  his  ends. 

Haendel  was  also  a  great  organist  and  harpsi-  HaendeVs 
chordist,  but  devoted  most  of  his  life  to  the  produc- 
tion of  Italian  opera.    His  harpsichord  technic,  as 
far  as  it  goes,  differs  in  no  essential  particular  from 
Bach's. 

Domenico  Scarlatti  seems  to  have  had  more  of  the 
virtuoso  spirit,  in  the  sense  in  which  that  term  is  vWt^uosUy. 
used  in  Germany  at  the  present  day. 

A  virtuoso,  in  this  sense,  is  one  who  puts  the 

8* 


HISTORY  OF  PIANOFORTE  MUSIC. 


mastery  of  technical  difficulties  and  the  display  of 
his  technical  attainments  above  those  aims  which 
the  real  artist  regards  as  paramount. 

The  true  artist  has  in  view,  first  of  all,  the  worthy 
1  embodiment  of  a  worthy  ideal.  As  an  interpretative 
artist  he  holds  it  his  paramount  duty  to  render 
truthfully  the  conceptions  of  any  composer  whose 
works  he  takes  upon  himself  to  represent  to  others, 
selecting  the  works  of  no  composer  whose  genius  he 
does  not  respect,  treating  them  reverently  and 
interpreting  them  with  conscientious  fidelity,  so  far 
as  he  can  ascertain  the  composer's  intention. 

The  virtuoso,  on  the  other  hand,  is  apt  to  use  his 
attainments  primarily  as  a  means  of  glorifying  him- 
self in  the  eyes  of  others.  Whatever  he  writes  is 
apt  to  be  written  with  reference  to  the  display  of  his 
attainments,  to  the  production  of  astonishing  and  sen- 
sational effects,  that  he  may  gain  glory  for  himself. 
His  performances  of  the  compositions  of  others  are 
apt  to  be  characterized  by  the  same  dominant  pur- 
pose. '■'Effect''  is  the  watchword  of  the  virtuoso. 
He  does  not  like  to  play  pieces,  however  noble  or 
significant,  which  are  not  effective.''  He  is  apt  to 
desecrate  the  noblest  works  of  the  greatest  genius 
by  additions  and  alterations  intended  solely  for 
show. 

The  spirit  of  the  artist  is  one  of  self-abnegation, 
of  devotion  to  ideal  aims.  The  virtuoso  is  primarily 
an  egotist,  using  his  technical  attainments  as  a 
means  not  to  the  faithful  setting  forth  of  noble  con- 
ceptions, but  for  his  own  personal  aggrandizement. 


TECHNIC  OF  THE  FIRST  CLASSICAL  PERIOD. 


187 


But,  although  there  are  abundant  examples  of 
both  classes  of  players,  there  are  perhaps  few  artists 
who  play  much  in  public  without  sometimes  being- 
tempted  to  sacrifice  something  of  the  higher  inter- 
ests they  are  called  to  represent,  to  the  desire  for 
applause,  and  perhaps  there  are  few  virtuosi  who  do 
not  sometimes  feel  impelled  to  use  their  splendid 
gifts  and  acquirements  for  high  ends.  It  is  a  ques- 
tion, in  each  individual  case,  of  predominant  ten- 
dency and  habitual  intention. 

As  regards  Domenico  Scarlatti,  it  would  doubt- 
less be  very  unjust  to  represent  him  as  a  virtuoso 
pure  and  simple,  in  the  sense  in  which  that  word  has 
just  been  explained.  But  there  is  much  in  his  com- 
positions which  seems  to  have  been  conditioned,  not 
on  any  inward  necessity  of  expression,  but  on  the 
desire  to  overcome  technical  difficulties  and  to  display 
his  mastery  of  them.  There  are  passages  exceedingly 
troublesome  to  players  even  now,  which  seem  to 
serve  no  ideal  end,  but  to  exist  solely  for  the  sake  of 
difficulty. 

The  most  conspicuous  examples  of  this  are  pas- 
sages where  the  hands  are  crossed  very  rapidly,  as 
in  the  sonata  No.  10  of  Koehler's  edition  (see  Chap- 
ter I).  But  whatever  we  may  think  of  the  intel- 
lectual or  artistic  worth  of  this  sort  of  work,  it 
undoubtedly  contributed  much  to  the  mastery  of 
technic,  and  especially  to  the  development  of  the 
monophonic  style  of  playing. 


CHAPTER  XI. 


THE  TECHNIC  OF  THE  SECOND  CLASSICAL  PERIOD. 


When  we  compare  the  sonatas  of  Scarlatti,  the 
suites  of  Haendel  and  the  suites,  partitas,  sonatas 
and  concertos  of  Sebastian  Bach  with  the  sonatas  of 
Emanuel  Bach,  we  find  no  sudden  change  in 
technical  qualities.  Indeed,  the  development  of  the 
technic  of  the  pianoforte  was  a  slow  and  gradual 
process,  and  neither  Emanuel  Bach,  Haydn  nor 
Mozart  ever  fully  recognized  the  peculiar  capacities 
of  the  new  instrument.  All  three  were  bred  harp- 
sichordists, and  even  in  the  Mozart  concertos,  the 
culmination  of  technic  in  these  three  authors,  most 
of  the  passages  are  perfectly  practicable  for  the 
harpsichord.  In  these  works,  as  in  those  of  Haydn 
and  Emanuel  Bach,  we  find  the  same  demand  for 
lightness  and  fluency  which  characterized  the  con- 
certos and  other  compositions  of  Sebastian  Bach's 
time. 

This  was,  in  part,  due  to  the  fact  that  the  Vienna 
pianofortes  had  very  light  actions,  modeled  on  those 
of  the  harpsichords  then  in  use.  The  ideals  of 
pianoforte  technic  and  effects  were  drawn  from  the 
experience  of  harpsichord  players,  modified  only  by 
the  single  consideration  of  the  possibility  of  shading. 

But  this  capacity  for  varying  the  power  of  tones 
188 


TECHNIC  OF  THE  SECOND  CLASSICAL  PERIOD. 


189 


was  an  element  which  gradually  enlarged  the  ideas 
of  players  as  to  the  possible  effects  derivable  from  it, 
and,  after  a  while,  led  to  great  changes  in  the  con- 
struction of  the  instrument. 

Nevertheless,  Vienna  was  not  the  place  where 
these  modifications  first  suggested  themselves  ;  the 
Viennese  players  and  composers  continued  for  a  long 
time  to  be  the  exponents  of  a  smooth,  easy-going, 
superficial  style  of  technic  and  of  playing,  and  the 
Viennese  pianofortes  continued  to  be  very  light  in 
action  and  lacking  in  sonority,  making  small  de- 
mands on  the  power  and  endurance  of  players,  and 
incapable  of  broad  or  powerful  effects. 

From  the  above  judgment  of  Viennese  composers, 
Beethoven,  and  in  a  less  degree,  Schubert  must  be 
excepted.    More  of  these  hereafter. 

The  most  important  service  rendered  by  Emanuel 
Bach,  Haydn  and  Mozart  in  the  development  of 
pianoforte  technic  was  their  progressive  recognition 
of  the  lyric  element.  The  adagios  in  the  sonatas  of 
Emanuel  Bach  were  distinct  attempts  to  improve 
upon  the  singing  effects  already  attained  on  the 
clavichord.  They  were  probably  calculated  for  that 
instrument,  at  least  quite  as  much  as  for  the  piano- 
forte, for,  although  Bach  played  both  instruments, 
and  the  harpsichord  as  well,  he  is  said  always  to 
have  preferred  certain  effects  obtainable  on  the 
clavichord  to  any  of  those  which  could  be  produced 
by  the  pianofortes  of  his  day. 

The   most   peculiar  of  these   effects  was  the 
a  peculiar  tremulous  effect  produced  by 


igo 


HISTORY  OF  PIANOFORTE  MUSIC. 


a  rapid  repetition  of  slight  pressure  on  the  key. 
The  "  Tangent,"  which  was  in  contact  with  the 
string  as  long  as  the  key  was  held  down,  transmit- 
ted this  vibratory  motion  to  the  string,  producing 
an  effect  probably  analogous  to  that  with  which  we 
are  familiar  in  the  playing  of  violinists  and  violon- 
cellists. 

But  although  Bach  preferred  the  clavichord  for 
the  performance  of  his  lyric  pieces,  the  stress  he 
laid  upon  the  lyric  element  in  playing  must  have 
tended  strongly  to  develop  the  lyric  capabilities  of 
the  pianoforte,  an  instrument  which  was  now  rapidly 
growing  in  favor,  so  much  so  as  to  fairly  supersede 
the  older  instruments  about  the  time  of  Emanuel 
Bach's  death  (1785). 

Haydn  and  Mozart  also  cultivated  the  lyric  ele- 
ment of  the  pianoforte.  Their  works  show  a  steady 
development  of  it.  Haydn  modeled  on  Bach,  and 
Mozart  on  Bach  and  Haydn,  and  in  the  Mozart  sona- 
tas and  concertos  we  find  what  was  probably  a  full 
and  complete  recognition  of  the  lyric  possibilities  of 
the  small,  light  Viennese  pianofortes  of  his  time. 

The  extended  scale  and  arpeggio  passages  of  the 
Mozart  concertos  also  show  a  distinct  recognition  of 
the  capabilities  of  light  and  shade  peculiar  to  the 
pianoforte,  although  their  relation  to  the  harpsi- 
chord is  almost  as  close  as  their  relation  to  the 
newer  instruments. 

But  there  was  an  Italian  contemporary  of  his 
who,  though  he  was  no  such  original  genius  as 
Mozart,  rendered  more  important  service  than  he  in 


TECHNIC  OF  THE  SECOND  CLASSICAL  PERIOD. 


191 


the  development  of  pianoforte  technic.  This  was 
Muzio  Clementi  ( 1 75 2-1 832  ),  an  artist  and  virtu- 
oso who  occupies  somewhat  the  same  relation  to 
Mozart  and  Haydn  that  Domenico  Scarlatti  did  to 
Bach  and  Haendel. 

He  was  born  at  Rome,  went  to  England  in  his 
childhood  and  spent  most  of  his  lifetime  there.  His 
eighty  years  were  full  of  honorable  and  useful  activ- 
ity. He  was  a  thorough  musician,  an  excellent 
composer,  so  far  as  technical  attainments  went,  and 
had  very  marked  talent,  so  much,  indeed,  that  no  less 
a  judge  than  Beethoven  preferred  his  sonatas  to 
Mozart's.  He  composed  about  a  hundred  sonatas, 
the  same  number  of  studies  (Gradus  ad  Parnassum), 
besides  symphonies,  choruses,  etc. 

He  was  a  superior  teacher,  and  formed  some  of 
the  finest  pianists  of  the  next  generation  ;  among 
them  J.  B.  Cramer,  John  Field,  Alex.  Klengel  and 
Ludwig  Berger.  He  also  conducted  Italian  opera 
in  London,  and  engaged  in  the  manufacture  of 
pianofortes. 

In  early  life,  he  aimed  at  brilliant  execution,  and 
especially  cultivated  difficult  playing  in  double 
thirds,  fourths,  sixths  and  octaves.  He  after- 
wards acquired  a  broad  cantabile  and  a  nobler  and 
more  artistic  style  generally.  He  was  a  pianist 
rather  than  a  harpsichordist,  and  was  really  the  first 
of  the  great  players  of  whom  this  could  be  said. 
He  preferred  the  English  pianofortes  with  their 
heavy  action,  and  adapted  his  playing  and  his  com- 
positions to  these  instruments. 


192 


HISTORY  OF  PIANOFORTE  MUSIC. 


Chap.  XI. 

dementi  s 
technic  as 
related  to 
English 
piano- 
fortes. 


His 

importance 
in  the 
history  0/ 
technic. 


These  English  pianos  had  greater  sonority  than 
those  of  Vienna ;  the  heavier  stroke  suggested 
heavier  strings  and  a  larger  sotinding-board,  and 
they  required  a  technic  approaching  that  of  the 
modern  instruments.  It  is  dementi's  great  con- 
tribution to  pianoforte  technics  that  he  fully  appre- 
hended the  requirements  and  capacities  of  the  best 
English  instruments  of  his  day,  and  in  his  playing, 
teaching,  and  composing,  gave  them  adequate  recog- 
nition. 

The  whole  fabric  of  modern  pianoforte  technic 
rests  on  the  Gradus  ad  Parnassum.  Up  to  the  com- 
positions of  Chopin,  Liszt  and  Schumann,  there  is 
nothing  for  which  these  studies  do  not  afford  an 
adequate  foundation.  Even  the  Beethoven  Fifth 
Concerto  does  not  go  beyond  the  Clementi  technic, 
in  its  principles  or  its  extreme  difficulty. 

dementi's  lifetime  covers  a  period  from  seven 
years  before  the  death  of  Haendel  to  four  years  after 
that  of  Beethoven  and  up  to  within  two  years  of  the 
establishment  of  the  Neue  Zeitschrift  fuer  Musik  by 
Schumann.  He  lived  through  the  whole  epoch  of 
the  development  of  the  sonata,  its  culmination  and 
transformation,  and  into  the  very  sunrise  of  the 
Romantic  epoch. 


CHAPTER  XII. 


THE  TECHNIC  OF  THE  TRANSITION  PERIOD. 

We  have  already  seen  that  Clementi,  the  most  Chap,  xii. 
important  factor  in  the  classical  technic,  lived  not 
only  through  the  first  classical  period,  but  through 
the  transition  period  as  well.  He  was  born  four 
years  earlier  than  Mozart  and  died  four  years  later 
than  Beethoven.  Moreover,  the  most  important 
part  of  his  work  was  done  between  the  dates  of 
Mozart's  death  and  that  of  Beethoven. 

Although  the  romantic  ideals  were  pressing  into  The  technic 
the  foreground,  the  whole  technic  of  the  transition  "pet^od 
period  was  classical.    We  have  already  noticed  that 
Beethoven's  most  difficult  concerto  is  amply  pro- 
vided for  in  dementi's  technic. 

Beethoven  did,  indeed,  embody  a  content  in  the  Beethoven's 
greatest  of  his  works,  for  the  interpretation  of  which 
the  full  resources  of  our  modern  instruments  are  no 
more  than  sufficient.  In  this  respect  his  work  is 
prophetic.  But  the  essential  elements  of  his  tech- 
nic are  all  to  be  found  in  the  Gradus  of  Clementi. 
One  of  the  most  noticeable  points  of  his  early  tech- 
nic is  his  use  of  rapid  successions  of  chords,  as  in 
the  Sonata  in  C,  op.  2,  No.  3.  This  is  evidently 
borrowed  from  Clementi,  who  was,  at  that  time,  his 
favorite  model. 

193 


194 


HISTORY  OF  PIANOFORTE  MUSIC. 


The  technic  of  Schubert  and  Weber  was  also 
based  on  that  of  Clementi.  The  latter,  however, 
made  use  of  extended  chords  in  a  way  wholly 
original,  an  example  which  has  been  followed  since. 
He  also  used  the  octave  glissando  in  his  "  Concert- 
Stueck,"  a  mere  virtuoso  trick,  which  has  remained 
wholly  without  influence  on  practice  since. 

In  general,  it  may  be  said  that  not  only  the  con- 
temporaries of  Clementi,  but  all  classical  players 
and  composers  since,  have  based  their  technic  on 
his  Gradus  ad  Parnassum.  Some  of  them,  like 
Moscheles,  for  example,  have  seized  upon  points 
which  he  had  treated  but  briefly  and  have  elaborated 
them  at  great  length  and  in  detail.  Many  individ- 
ual peculiarities  of  treatment  and  style  are  also  to 
be  found,  and  the  classical  players  of  the  Romantic 
period  could  hardly  remain  wholly  unaffected  by 
the  innovations  of  the  Romantic  composers.  But, 
in  principle,  all  classical  technic  is  to  be  found 
in  Clementi ;  and  all  in  our  modern  playing 
which  cannot  be  accounted  for  on  his  principles 
can  be  referred  to  Liszt  and  the  other  Romanti- 
cists. 

In  one  single  point  of  technic  have  players,  not 
distinctively  Romantic,  gone  beyond  dementi's 
practice  or  suggestion,  viz.,  the  use  of  the  damper 
pedal.  Beethoven  used  it  considerably,  and  Mos- 
cheles (i 784-1870)  still  more  extensively.  Henselt 
(born  1 8 14)  still  further  enlarged  the  domain  of  the 
pedal,  and  Thalberg  (181 2-1 871),  who  cannot  be 


THE  TECHNIC  OF  THE  TRANSITION  PERIOD. 


classed  as  either  a  classicist  or  romanticist,  but  is 
the  culmination  of  the  ^Thilistine"  school  of  shallow 
players,  of  which  Czerny  and  Kalkbrenner  were 
distinguished  representatives,  carried  the  use  of  it 
to  its  extreme  limits. 


Chap.  XII. 


CHAPTER  XIII. 


THE  TECHNIC  OF  THE  ROMANTIC  PERIOD. 


We  have  already  seen  that  the  classical  school  of 
playing  persisted  after  the  advent  of  the  great 
Romanticists.  Kalkbrenner  (i 788-1 849),  one  of 
the  greatest  of  the  classical  virtuosi,  died  in  the 
same  year  with  Chopin.  Moscheles  (i 794-1 870) 
outlived  all  the  Romanticists.  Hiller  was  born  in 
181 1,  Thalberg  in  1812  and  Henselt  in  1814.  Of 
these  three  only  Thalberg  is  dead,  and  even  he  out- 
lived all  the  great  Romanticists  except  Liszt.  Be- 
sides these  there  is  a  host  of  players  who  are  classi- 
cists by  tradition  and  principle. 

These  followers  of  the  methods  of  classical  tech- 
nic were,  indeed,  more  or  less  affected  by  the 
Romantic  influences  which  surrounded  them,  but 
these  influences  showed  themselves  rather  in  at- 
tempts at  characterization  and  the  embodiment  of  a 
Romantic  content  than  in  any  borrowing  of  the  pecu- 
liar effects  of  the  distinctively  Romantic  technic.  In- 
deed, Mendelssohn  himself  was  essentially  a  classicist 
in  much  of  his  technic,  no  less  than  in  the  clearness  of 
his  forms.  Even  in  the  Songs  without  Words,  there 
is  little  which  cannot  be  referred  back  to  the  techni- 
cal principles  of  Clementi. 

These  principles  depended  mainly  on  the  con- 
196 


THE  TECHNIC  OF  THE  ROMANTIC  PERIOD. 


struction  of  compositions  from  five-finger  passages, 
scales  and  arpeggios.  The  rules  of  fingering 
required  that  a  five-key  position  should  always  be 
taken  when  possible  ;  that  a  position  once  taken 
should  not  be  changed  unnecessarily  ;  that  all  pas- 
sages derived  from  scales  and  arpeggios  should  be 
fingered  like  the  arpeggios  or  scales  on  which  they 
were  founded  ;  that  the  thumb  and  little  finger, 
being  shorter  than  the  others,  should  not  be  used  on 
black  keys,  except  in  positions  where  their  shortness 
produced  no  disadvantage.  These  principles  suf- 
fice for  playing  all  classical  compositions  in  the 
monophonic  style. 

But  Mendelssohn,  in  many  of  his  Songs  without 
Words,  introduced  passages  where  a  melody  with 
an  accompaniment  to  be  played  by  the  same  hand 
could  be  delivered  properly  only  by  changing  the 
fingers  on  successive  keys  while  holding  them  down 
with  a  continuous  clinging  pressure. 

This  changing  of  fingers  was  not  wholly  new,  for 
Bach  had  used  it  in  polyphonic  playing,  and  occa- 
sional instances  of  it  had  occurred  since,  in  de- 
menti's works  and  elsewhere  ;  but  with  Mendelssohn 
it  assumed  new  and  greater  importance.  His  Songs 
without  Words  became  the  fashion,  served  as  mod- 
els to  many  composers,  and  intensified  the  already 
great  and  growing  interest  in  the  purely  lyric  style. 

This  interest  was  greatly  heightened  by  the  lyric 
pieces  of  Chopin.  But  Chopin's  relation  to  technic 
was  much  more  important  than  Mendelssohn's.  He 
was  an  innovator  ;  as  original  in  his  technical  meth- 


HISTORY  OF  PIANOFORTE  MUSIC. 


ods  and  treatment  as  he  was  in  his  ideas  and  his 
harmonies.  Above  all  others  he  thoroughly  under- 
stood how  to  write  for  the  pianoforte,  and  how  to 
produce  effects  hitherto  unattained.  He  improved 
the  legato  playing  of  chromatic  passages,  especially 
in  double  thirds  and  other  intervals,  by  putting  the 
fifth  finger  under  the  fourth  and  third  in  descend- 
ing and  the  third  and  fourth  over  the  fifth  in 
ascending.  He  showed  how  to  produce  a  smooth, 
even  chain  of  tones  in  arpeggios  dispersed  in  wide 
intervals,  and  in  extended  chords.  He  wrote  arpeg- 
gios so  interspersed  with  passing-notes  and  appog- 
giaturas  that  no  rules  of  fingering  previously  known 
would  apply  to  them,  and  showed  how  they  could 
be  played  with  ease  and  certainty. 

Schumann  also  had  a  peculiar  technic,  but  one 
which  seemed,  at  least,  less  perfectly  adapted  to  the 
requirements  and  resources  of  the  pianoforte.  Ap- 
parently, his  innovations  were  not,  like  Chopin's, 
based  on  a  thorough  mastering  of  all  previous  tech- 
nical achievements  and  a  clear  perception  of  new 
effects  to  be  produced  by  a  further  natural  develop- 
ment. They  were  dependent  rather  on  the  require- 
ments of  emotional  expression,  to  which  the  piano- 
forte must  adapt  itself  if  it  could  ;  if  not,  so  much 
the  worse  for  the  pianoforte. 

The  new  difficulties  consisted  partly  in  obscure 
and  involved  rhythms,  partly  in  the  peculiar  rela- 
tions of  the  melodies  to  their  accompaniments, 
partly  in  the  use  of  extended  chords  in  awkward 


THE  TECHNIC  OF  THE  ROMANTIC  PERIOD. 


199 


positions,  and  partly  in  the  participation  of  both 
hands  in  the  deUvery  of  the  same  phrase. 

In  all  these  cases  the  thought  is  first  in  import- 
ance with  the  composer  and  facility  of  execution 
seems  to  be  an  entirely  subordinate  matter. 

Schumann's  innovations,  therefore,  had,  for  a  long 
time,  comparatively  little  influence  on  the  technical 
treatment  of  the  pianoforte.  But  of  late  years,  a 
generation  of  players  and  composers  has  sprung  up 
who  have  been  powerfully  affected  by  the  Schu- 
mann cultus,  and  have  thoroughly  accustomed 
themselves  to  his  technic.  It  now  begins  to  be 
said  that  some  of  his  powerful  effects  imply  and 
demand  many  of  the  most  important  technical  qual- 
ities, both  in  player  and  instrument,  which  have 
heretofore  been  credited  to  Liszt,  and  which  Liszt 
was  certainly  the  first  to  popularize,  both  among 
players  and  pianoforte  makers.  The  new  school  of 
writers  represented  by  Brahms,  Tschaikowsky, 
Moszkowski,  the  two  Scharwenkas,  the  Brassin 
brothers  and  Sgambati,  is  deeply  marked  by  the 
Schumann  peculiarities. 

Chopin  excepted,  no  composer  has  wrought  such 
remarkable  changes  in  technic  during  his  life  time 
as  Franz  Liszt.  He  was  born  October  22,  181 1, 
at  Raiding,  near  Pesth,  in  Hungary.  His  father 
gave  him  his  first  lessons  in  playing  the  pianoforte 
at  the  age  of  six  years. 

The  boy  at  once  showed  the  most  remarkable 
gifts.  His  sight-reading,  comprehension  and  exe- 
cution were  astonishing.    At  nine  years  of  age  he 


200 


HISTORY  OF  PIANOFORTE  MUSIC. 


was  able  to  play  a  difficult  concerto  in  public,  and 
roused  the  admiration  of  all  who  heard  him  by  the 
fire  and  spirit  of  his  performances. 

He  attracted  the  attention  of  two  Hungarian 
noblemen,  who  gave  him  a  pension  of  six  hundred 
gulden  (about  three  hundred  dollars)  a  year  to  ena- 
ble him  to  prosecute  his  studies.  His  father  then 
took  him  to  Vienna  and  placed  him  under  Czerny's 
instruction.  The  boy  also  studied  theory  with  old 
Salieri 

How  well  he  read  at  sight  will  appear  from  a 
single  anecdote.  He  went  one  day  into  a  music 
store  where  some  musicians  were  examining  a  new 
and  difficult  concerto  of  Hummel.  Knowing  that 
he  played  almost  everything  at  sight,  they  gave  him 
this  as  an  extraordinary  test.  He  played  it  at  once 
with  apparent  ease. 

Of  course,  for  such  a  pupil  there  could  be  few  dif- 
ficulties, and  before  long  young  Liszt  had  com- 
pletely risen  above  all  the  demands  of  technic  as 
then  practised  and  had  begun  to  invent  new  effects 
of  his  own.  He  also  mastered  the  whole  range  of 
existing  compositions  for  his  instrument. 

In  1823  his  father  took  him  to  Paris  and  the  fol- 
lowing year  to  London,  in  both  of  which  cities  his 
playing  excited  surprise  and  admiration. 

In  1827  his  father  died,  and  young  Liszt,  now  six- 
teen years  of  age,  went  to  Paris  to  seek  his  fortune 
as  pianist  and  teacher.  He  became  at  once  a  prom- 
inent adherent  of  the  extreme  Romantic  school. 

Soon  after  he  went  to  Paris,  Hector  Berlioz  pub- 


THE  TECHNIC  OF  THE  ROMANTIC  PERIOD. 


20I 


licly  produced  some  of  his  fantastic  "  programme 
music."  Young  Liszt  was  strongly  attracted  by  its 
peculiar  style  and  impressed  by  its  unquestionable 
power,  as  well  as  by  the  evident  mastery  of  all  the 
resources  of  the  orchestra  displayed  by  this  extremely 
eccentric  and  original  composer.  He  soon  set  to 
work  to  transcribe  these  works  for  the  pianoforte. 

The  problem  he  set  for  himself  was  to  reproduce, 
with  the  limited  resources  of  an  instrument  poor  in 
melody  and  monotonous  in  tone-color,  the  effects  of 
the  full  orchestra  with  all  its  different  families  of 
instruments.  A  stupendous  task,  indeed,  and  one 
impossible  to  discharge  except  in  remote  approxi- 
mation. But  the  degree  of  his  success  was  aston- 
ishing, and  his  playing  of  his  transcriptions  was  an 
exhibition  of  virtuosity  which  completely  threw  into 
the  shade  the  performances  of  all  other  virtuosi  in  the 
capital.  He  followed  up  these  works  by  numerous 
transcriptions  of  orchestral  works,  including  some 
of  the  Beethoven  symphonies,  and  afterwards  tran- 
scribed numerous  opera  melodies,  songs  by  Schu- 
bert and  others,  Hungarian  Gypsy  melodies  (Rhap- 
sodies), and  some  of  Bach's  organ  fugues. 

The  impulse  to  this  work  was  greatly  quickened 
by  the  violin  playing  of  Paganini,  who  appeared  in 
Paris  in  1 83 1.  It  was  young  Liszt's  ambition  to 
become  the  Paganini  of  the  pianoforte.  With  this 
end  in  view  he  studied  and  experimented  constantly 
to  produce  new  effects  in  melody,  harmony  and 
brilliant  passages,  to  increase  the  power  and  sonority 
of  his  touch,  to  vary  the  quality  or    color  "  of  his 


202 


HISTORY  OF  PIANOFORTE  MUSIC, 


tones  by  different  kinds  of  touches,  to  discriminate 
the  different  elements  of  a  piece  as  widely  as 
possible,  and  to  make  his  playing  effective  by  vio- 
lence of  contrast,  force,  fire,  spirit,  delicacy  and 
refinement,all  carried  to  the  highest  attainable  pitch  of 
excellence.  In  all  this  he  was  successful,  and  attained 
such  mastery  as  was  not  only  the  despair  of  all  the 
players  of  that  time,  but  remains,  by  general  con- 
sent, unrivaled  by  any  of  the  great  pianists  who 
have  since  been  formed  on  the  principles  of  his  own 
technic. 

These  principles  were,  first,  the  development  of 
the  greatest  possible  strength  and  power  of  discrim- 
inative emphasis  in  the  individual  fingers,  and  sec- 
ond, a  much  greater  use  of  the  hand  playing  with  a 
loose  wrist  than  had  hitherto  been  customary. 

For  the  first,  he  held  the  wrist  higher  than  other 
players,  and  left  it  perfectly  flexible,  but  still  in  such 
a  position  that  the  fingers  had  all  possible  mechani- 
cal advantage  for  the  production  of  a  powerful  tone. 
He  also  invented  simple  and  radical  exercises  for 
developing  the  strength  of  the  fingers  in  the  shortest 
possible  time.  For  the  second,  he  made  great  use 
of  single  and  double  trills,  runs,  arpeggios,  inter- 
locking passages,  etc.,  to  be  executed  with  the  two 
hands  alternately.  This  produced  a  totally  new 
class  of  effects  by  means  of  wrist  action. 

These  brilliant  pyrotechnics,  though  really  not 
much  more  difficult  of  attainment  than  the  effects 
of  the  older  technic,  were  thought  at  the  time  to  be 
impossible  for  any  one  except  Liszt  himself,  and 


THE  TECHNIC  OF  THE  ROMANTIC  PERIOD. 


203 


pieces  like  his  "  Rigoletto  "  Fantasie,  now  effectively 
played  by  some  boarding-school  misses,  were  then 
thought  too  difficult  for  great  virtuosi. 

Between  the  years  1836  and  1848  Liszt  played  a 
great  deal  in  all  the  principal  cities  of  Europe  and 
even  in  Constantinople,  and  was  honored  as  -  few 
artists  have  ever  been,  alike  by  kings,  princes,  nobil- 
ity and  commoners. 

In  1848  he  became  conductor  of  the  Grand 
Duke's  Opera  at  Weimar  and  since  that  has  seldom 
played  in  public.  He  gave  up  his  conductorship  in 
1859,  and  has  since  lived  at  Weimar,  Pesth  and 
Rome,  always  surrounded  by  friends  and  admirers, 
and  by  young  pianists  seeking  his  counsel. 

To  these  he  has  always  shown  himself  a  friend 
and  benefactor. 

But  Liszt's  generosity  has  never  been  confined  to 
artists.  Wherever  there  was  distress  or  need,  there 
he  was  always  ready  with  money,  sympathy  and 
powerful  influence  for  help.  No  artist  was  ever 
more  loved  than  he,  and  none  ever  seemed  more 
influential  in  his  own  time. 

Liszt  has  devoted  himself  of  late  years  to  the 
composition  of  great  choral  and  orchestral  works. 
He  had  previously  written  many  etudes,  two  con- 
certos and  many  other  original  works  for  the  piano- 
forte. In  these  pieces,  as  in  his  transcriptions,  the 
prime  consideration  is  their  relation  to  the  public. 
His  original  ideas  are  seldom  or  never  profoundly 
significant.  Few  of  his  original  pianoforte  works,  at 
least,  are  conditioned  on  an  inward  necessity  for 


204 


HISTORY  OF  PIANOFORTE  MUSIC. 


emotional  expression  so  much  as  on  the  desire  to 
affect  others.  And  again,  the  desire  is  not  to  affect 
others  by  the  communication  of  great  thoughts  and 
feeHngs  which  press  for  utterance  and  crave  sym- 
pathy, but  to  make  effect^  to  produce  sensation,  to 
dazzle,  astonish,  overwhelm  by  a  display  of  force, 
brilliancy  and  mastery  of  effects  unattainable  by 
others. 

Liszt's  works  are  always  exciting,  but  few  of  them 
are  poetic  or  inspiring.  They  are  imposing  in  their 
sonority  and  in  the  bold  and  striking  character 
of  their  effects,  and  imposing  also  in  the  sense  that 
they  appear  at  first  to  be  much  more  significant 
than  they  really  are.  After  we  have  a  little  recovered 
from  the  first  shock  of  the  powerful  sensations  they 
produce,  we  discover  that  these  stormy  passages  are 
grandiose,  not  grand  ;  noisy,  not  sublime  ;  sensa- 
tional, not  profound. 

The  effect  of  them  and  of  Liszt's  playing  and 
teaching  has  been  to  revolutionize  technic  and  to 
bring  about  great  changes  in  the  construction  of 
the  pianoforte  in  the  direction  of  an  enormous 
increase  of  sonority  and  of  capacity  to  endure  a 
powerful  touch  without  injury  to  the  quality  of  the 
tone. 

But  as  regards  creative  and  perhaps  even  inter- 
pretative Art,  Liszt's  influence  has  been  much  less 
marked  and  does  not  seem  likely  to  be  permanent. 
After  all,  the  kingdom  of  true  Art,  like  "  the  king- 
dom of  God,  cometh  not  with  observation,"  and  is 


THE  TECHNIC  OF  THE  ROMANTIC  PERIOD. 


205 


manifested  not  in  the  fire  nor  in  the  whirlwind,  but 
in  the  "still  small  voice." 

Liszt  will  certainly  be  known  in  the  history  of 
pianoforte  music  as  the  greatest  virtuoso  of  his 
time.  It  seems  not  improbable  that  he  will  be 
credited  with  the  development  of  the  pianoforte 
and  of  its  technical  requirements  to  the  extreme 
limits  of  the  possibilities  of  both.  At  any  rate,  it 
is  hard  to  see  any  capacities  in  the  present  instru- 
ments which  Liszt  has  not  exhausted,  or  what 
possible  use  of  the  muscles  of  the  hand  and  arm  in 
playing  he  has  not  discovered  and  practiced.  He 
is  the  king  of  pianists  and  this  title  he  seems  likely 
to  retain  for  all  time. 

To  sum  up  this  discussion:  Besides  the  increased 
demands  on  the  interpretative  powers  of  the  player 
made  by  the  great  Romanticists,  there  are  peculiar 
intellectual  requirements.  Among  these  are  the 
peculiar  involved,  intricate  rhythms  of  Schumann 
and  the  extremely  original  harmonies  and  modula- 
tions of  Chopin  and  Liszt. 

But  when  these  peculiarities  have  been  perfectly 
grasped  and  assimilated  in  the  mind  of  the  player 
they  are  seen  to  involve  mechanical  difficulties  of  a 
character  foreign  to  the  classical  technic. 

I,  The  great  increase  of  sonority  demands 
greater  development  of  strength  in  the  hand  and 
fingers  without  in  the  least  impairing  the  flexibility 
of  the  hand  and  wrist.  Indeed  the  demand  for 
perfect  flexibility  and  independence  of  all  the 
muscles,  joints  and  nerves  involved  is  even  greater 


2o6 


HISTORY  OF  PIANOFORTE  MUSIC. 


than  ever,  for  the  demand  for  discriminative  empha- 
sis is  greatly  increased.  Not  only  must  the  two 
hands  be  perfectly  independent  of  each  other,  but 
each  separate  finger  must  be  able  to  produce  the 
most  powerful  tone  of  which  it  is  capable,  while 
other  fingers  in  the  same  hand  are  producing  tones 
of  differing  degrees  of  force.  In  short,  there  was 
never  before  such  a  demand  for  the  blending  of 
different  degrees  of  force  in  touch,  discriminating 
each  with  the  greatest  precision  and  nicety. 

2.  The  peculiar  harmonies  and  especially  the  em- 
ployment of  harmonic  bye-tones  in  scale  and 
arpeggio  passages  demands  a  different  mode  of 
fingering  from  that  which  sufficed  for  the  playing  of 
classical  pieces.  This  fingering  involves  putting  the 
fourth  and  fifth  fingers  under  the  others  with  entire 
freedom,  and,  in  general,  a  much  freer  use  of  the 
thumb  and  little  finger,  especially  on  the  black  keys, 
than  was  formerly  admitted. 

3.  The  greater  sonority  attained  by  the  use  of  chords 
in  extended  positions  demands  new  stretches  of  the 
fingers  laterally  to  make  the  new  intervals  effective. 
This  involves  both  a  greater  development  of  the 
interosseous  muscles  of  the  hand,  and  a  new  lateral 
action  of  the  hand  from  the  wrist,  some  one  of  the 
middle  fingers  being  used  as  an  axis  on  which  the 
hand  turns  loosely  and  rapidly  to  reach  its  new  posi- 
tion. There  has  also  been  a  great  increase  in  the 
demand  for  long  skips. 

4.  The  demands  for  wrist  action  are  also  much 
greater  than  formerly,  both  as  regards  the  alternate 


THE  TECHNIC  OF  THE  ROMANTIC  PERIOD. 


207 


employment  of  the  hands  in  trills  and  interlocking 
passages,  and  as  regards  full  chords  struck  staccato^ 
or  in  rapid  succession. 

Two  important  works  intended  to  develop  the 
necessary  technic  to  meet  the  demands  of  the  Ro- 
mantic compositions  are  worthy  of  notice  here  : 
The  Tausig  "  Daily  Studies  "  and  Mason's  Piano- 
forte Technics." 

Carl  Tausig  (1841-1871),  was  perhaps  the  most 
brilliant  of  all  Liszt's  pupils.  A  virtuoso  of  the  very 
highest  rank,  for  whom  absolutely  no  technical  diffi- 
culties existed,  with  a  technic  which  seemed  infalli- 
ble, his  performances  were  dazzling  in  the  extreme. 
Moreover  he  was  a  thoughtful,  intelligent,  well-edu- 
cated man  and  a  practical  teacher,  so  that  he  was 
every  way  admirably  fitted  to  embody  and  commun- 
icate the  results  of  his  study  and  experience. 

He  taught  some  years  in  Berlin,  and  gradually 
elaborated  a  system  of  elementary  technical  exer- 
cises calculated  to  develop  strength,  flexibility  and 
in  short  all  the  requirements  of  the  modern  technic. 

He  did  not  live  to  complete  it  however.  It  was 
finally  edited  and  published  by  his  friend,  H. 
Ehrlich,  another  prominent  teacher  and  pianist  in 
Berlin,  who  incorporated  many  excellent  ideas  of  his 
own  in  the  work. 

These  exercises,  though  seemingly  elementary, 
must  be  used  with  great  discretion,  if  at  all,  in  the 
earlier  stages  of  instruction.  They  are  mainly  use- 
ful to  advanced  players  under  the  guidance  of  an 
intelligent  teacher. 


2o8 


HISTORY  OF  PIANOFORTE  MUSIC. 


The  Mason  Technics,  on  the  other  hand,  are 
simple  and  radical,  and  can  be  used  with  beginners. 
Indeed,  there  is  no  single  exercise  which  will  so  rap- 
idly develop  strength,  flexibility  of  wrist  and  hand, 
delicacy,  force  and  discrimination  of  touch,  in  short, 
all  the  technical  merits  of  good  playing,  as  the  two- 
finger  exercise  elaborated  by  Mason  in  this  work. 
He  obtained  the  first  hint  of  it  from  Liszt  and  after- 
wards developed  and  amplified  it  greatly. 

The  treatment  of  rhythm  in  this  work  is  also 
admirable  and  exhaustive.  The  book  is  one  which 
no  teacher  can  afford  to  overlook. 

Much  of  the  clearness  and  force  of  statement 
which  characterize  the  book,  as  well  as  some  of  the 
original  work,  are  to  be  credited  to  the  associate 
editor,  W.  S.  B.  Mathews  (author  of  How  to  Un- 
derstand Music  "),  who  is  wholly  responsible  for  the 
letter  press. 

Dr.  Wm.  Mason,  author  of  the  book,  was  born  in 
1829,  and  was  a  son  of  the  well-known  Dr.  Lowell 
Mason.  He  went  to  Europe  young,  studied  with 
Moscheles,  Hauptmann  and  Dreyschock,  and  then 
went  to  Liszt  about  1850,  remaining  with  him  some 
time.  He  became  a  very  distinguished  pianist  with 
a  world  wide  reputation.  He  has  been  settled  as  a 
teacher  in  New  York  since  1856,  and  has  written 
many  graceful,  refined,  excellent  pieces  for  his 
instrument. 


PART  FIFTH. 

MijstoeComposees  AisTD  Virtuosi 

OF  THE  DlFFEREJSTT  EPOCIIS. 


O  9* 


209 


CHAPTER  XIV. 


THE  EPOCH  OF  POLYPHONIC  MUSIC. 


The  first  harpsichord  players  were  organists,  and 
it  was  a  very  long  time  before  there  was  any  differ- 
entiation of  harpsichord  music  from  organ  music. 
Whatever  was  written  for  one  was  played  indiffer- 
ently on  the  othei 

The  prevalent  style  was  that  of  strict  polyphony, 
though  the  dance  forms  gradually  assumed  a  more 
lyric  character  and  approached  the  monophonic 
style,  developing  the  simple  period  forms.  The 
harpsichord  was  the  popular  household  instrument 
in  Italy,  Germany,  England,  and,  indeed,  wherever 
music  was  cultivated. 

In  Italy,  Venice  was  the  city  where  instrumental 
music  was  more  especially  cultivated,  and  the  suc- 
cessive organists  of  St.  Mark's  church  distinguished 
themselves  also  as  harpsichord  players. 

The  most  celebrated  of  these  was  Adrian  Willaert, 
a  Netherlander,  who  founded  the  Venetian  Music 
School  in  the  first  half  of  the  sixteenth  century. 
He  wrote  Fantasies  "  and  "  Ricercari  "  in  a  free 
contrapuntal  style,  and  was  a  great  musician  and 
composer.  In  his  day,  the  so-called  "  Ecclesiastical 
Keys  "*  prevailed,  and  he  was  among  the  first  to 

*See  "  History  of  Music,"  by  Professor  F.  L.  Ritter,  Vol.  I. 


2X1 


212 


HISTORY  OF  PIANOFORTE  MUSIC. 


Chap.  XIV.  suggest  the  division  of  the  octave  into  twelve  semi- 
tones, an  innovation  out  of  which  all  our  modern 
key  relationship  and  modulation  has  grown. 

p^p^iir*'^  This  change  was  greatly  forwarded  by  the  influence 
of  two  of  Willaert's  pupils,  Nicolo  Vincentino  and 
Cipriano  de  Rore,  and  by  still  another  pupil,  Giu- 
seffo  Zarlino,  a  renowned  theorist. 

Other  distinguished  Venetian  organists  and  harp- 
sichordists of  the  sixteenth  century  were  Claudio 
Merulo  di  Correggio,  Annibale  Padovano,  Andrea 
Gabrieli  and  Giovanni  Gabrieili,  most  of  them 
pupils  of  Willaert,  and  all  partakers  of  his  ideas. 
They  wrote  toccatas,  full  of  lively  passages  and 
arpeggios,  calculated  especially  with  reference  to 
the  evanescent  tones  of  the  harpsichord  as  con- 
trasted with  the  continuous  sound  of  the  organ  ; 
Canzoni,  in  a  more  lyric  style  ;  and  Sonatas,  in  free 
counterpoint. 

The  change  to  the  monophonic  style  was  a  very 

^efft^of      gradual  one.    One  of  the  most  important  agencies 

"phony  effecting  it,  as  already  pointed  out  in  a  former 

chapter,  was  the  invention  of  opera  at  Florence  in 
the  last  half  of  the  sixteenth  century.  For  the  first 
time  solo  singers  were  provided  with  recitatives  and 
arias,  to  which  was  added  a  simple  accompaniment 
for  the  harpsichord. 

It  soon  became  customary  to  write  only  a  bass 
part  for  the  harpsichordist  or  organist,  the  harmony 
being  indicated  by  means  of  figures  over  the  notes. 

But  the  player  was  commonly  expected  not  simply 
to  play  the  chords  indicated  by  the  figures,  but  to 


THE  EPOCH  OF  POL  YPHONIC  MUSIC. 


213 


invent  an  accompaniment  in  imitative  counter- 
point, and  this  remained  the  custom  for  more  than  a 
hundred  years.  The  abiUty  to  do  this  was  regarded 
as  one  of  the  greatest  tests  of  musicianship. 

But  there  was  more  or  less  of  free  accompaniment 
in  simple  harmony,  and  the  transfer  of  the  recita- 
tives and  airs  to  the  instrument,  with  the  accom- 
paniment, gradually  familiarized  players  with  the  idea 
of  a  monophonic  instrumental  style. 

Still,  the  very  ease  and  simplicity  of  it  was  in 
some  sense  a  hindrance  to  its  adoption.  Musicians 
prided  themselves  on  their  ability  to  overcome  the 
difficulties  of  elaborate  counterpoint,  and  he  who 
could  most  easily  master  its  intricate  mysteries  was 
accounted  of  the  highest  rank  in  his  profession. 
The  highest  tests  of  excellence  were  intellectual 
ones  ;  music  had  not  yet  come  to  be  considered 
primarily  in  its  relation  to  emotion. 

The  ability  required  of  players  was  the  ability  to 
play  a  complex  web  of  voice-parts  interwoven 
according  to  the  rules  of  counterpoint,  and,  on  occa- 
sion, to  invent  counterpoint  to  a  given  figured  bass. 

Among  the  most  renowned  players  and  composers 
of  this  period  ought  to  be  mentioned  Girolamo 
Frescobaldi  (1588-1645  ?),  said  to  have  been  an 
original  genius,  and  to  have  written  with  especial 
reference  to  the  capacities  of  the  harpsichord  as 
distinguished  from  the  organ.  He  was  organist  at 
St.  Peter's  in  Rome  all  the  latter  part  of  his  life. 

His  pupil,  Johann  Jacob  Froberger  (1635-1695), 
court  organist  to  the  Emperor  Ferdinand,  was  the 


214 


HISTORY  OF  PIANOFORTE  MUSIC. 


most  celebrated  German  player  of  the  last  half  of 
the  seventeenth  century.  Bernardo  Pasquini  (1637- 
17 10),  organist  at  St.  Mary's  in  Rome,  occupied  a 
similar  high  rank. 

In  England  there  was  a  school  of  distinguished 
players  and  contrapuntists.  Thomas  Tallis  was 
organist  to  Queen  Elizabeth  in  1575,  and  so  was  his 
pupil,  William  Bird  (1538-1623).  Other  distin- 
guished names  are  those  of  Dr.  Bull  (died  1622), 
Orlando  Gibbons  (1583-1625),  and  especially  Henry 
Purcell  (1658-1695). 

Specimens  of  their  works  are  given  in  Weitzmann's 
"  Geschichte  "  and  in  Burney's  "  History  of  Music." 
Some  examples  quoted  by  Burney  from  Dr.  Bull  are 
full  of  remarkable  difficulties  in  the  shape  of 
passages  in  double  thirds  and  sixths,  some  of  which 
seem  almost  impossible  of  execution. 

In  France  the  most  distinguished  players  and 
composers  of  this  period  were  Jean  Henry  D'  An- 
glebert,  court  harpsichordist  to  Louis  XIV,  and 
Frangois  Couperin  (1668-1 733),  a  composer  of  much 
greater  importance.  His  pieces  were  polyphonic, 
but  the  upper  voice-part  was  often  the  predominant 
melody,  and  all  the  voices  were  ornamented  with 
trills,  mordents,  appoggiaturas,  etc. 

Contemporary  with  Sebastian  Bach  were  Louis 
Marchand  (i 669-1 732),  a  very  distinguished  player, 
and  Jean  Phillippe  Rameau  (1683-1764),  whose 
work  as  a  composer,  though  important,  was  much 
less  significant  than  his  labors  as  a  theorist.  He 
published  a  work  on  thoroughbass,       the  science 


THE  EPOCH  OF  POLYPHONIC  MUSIC. 


215 


of  chords  and  the  art  of  harmonic  accompaniment 
to  a  given  voice,  in  which  the  old  polyphonic  stand- 
point was  forsaken,  that  of  monophony,  the  style  in 
which  one  melody  should  be  principal  and  the  others 
subordinate  was  fairly  occupied,  and  the  ground 
was  prepared  for  the  development  of  lyric  harpsi- 
chord music  and  of  the  sonata,  which  took  place  in 
the  next  generation. 

In  Germany,  besides  Froberger,  already  men- 
tioned, the  seventeenth  century  had  many  excellent 
organists  and  harpsichordists,  among  the  most  dis- 
tinguished of  whom  were  Hans  Leo  Hasler(i564- 
161 2),  born  in  Nuernberg,  but  court  organist  to  the 
Emperor  Rudolph  II,  in  Vienna,  a  composer  of 
very  great  merit ;  Adam  Gumpeltzhaimer,  Mel- 
chior  Franck,  Samuel  Scheldt,  in  the  first  half  of  the 
century;  Johann  Kaspar  Kerl  (died  1690),  Johann 
Pachelbel  (1653- 1706),  George  Muffat,  Andreas 
Werckmeister,  Dietrich  Buxtehude  (died  1707),  and 
Friedrich  Wilhelm  Zachau,  Haendel's  teacher,  in  the 
latter  half. 

Froberger  (1635-1695)  deserves  more  extended 
mention,  both  on  account  of  his  prominence  and 
because  of  his  romantic  adventures.  He  was  the 
son  of  a  cantor  in  Halle,  and,  showing  great  talent, 
was  taken  to  Vienna  by  the  Swedish  ambassador, 
who  had  heard  him  play,  and  introduced  to  the 
Emperor  Ferdinand  III. 

The  Emperor  became  his  patron,  and  sent  him  to 
Rome  to  study  with  Frescobaldi.  After  three  years, 
having  finished  his  studies,  he  went  to  Paris  and 


2l6 


HISTORY  OF  PIANOFORTE  MUSIC. 


Dresden,  and  then,  returning  to  Vienna,  became 
court  organist.  In  1662  he  received  permission  to 
visit  London.  He  was  robbed  on  his  way  through 
France,  and,  barely  escaping  with  Hfe,  reached 
Calais  in  rags.  He  managed  to  take  passage  to 
London,  but  when  near  the  English  coast,  the  ship 
was  taken  by  pirates,  and  he  jumped  overboard  and 
swam  ashore  to  avoid  captivity  or  worse.  Taking 
refuge  in  some  fishermen's  huts,  they  furnished  him 
with  one  of  their  old  suits,  and  in  this  guise  he 
begged  his  way  to  London. 

There  he  entered  St.  Paul's,  during  service,  to 
give  thanks  for  his  deliverance.  At  the  close  of  the 
service  he  was  accosted  somewhat  roughly  by  the 
organist,  who  learning  that  he  was  hungry  and  pen- 
niless, and  knowing  nothing  of  his  character  as  a 
musician,  offered  him  the  job  of  blowing  the 
bellows.  This  Froberger  accepted  in  his  need,  said 
nothing  of  his  profession,  and  continued  in  his  hum- 
ble office  until  the  marriage  of  Charles  H  with 
Catherine  of  Portugal.  On  this  occasion  he  was  so 
absent-minded  as  to  let  the  wind  out  of  the  bellows, 
and  the  playing  came  to  an  abrupt  and  mortifying 
close  in  an  important  part  of  the  solemnities.  The 
organist  flew  at  him  furiously,  bestowed  on  him 
some  kicks  and  cuffs  and  rushed  away.  A  lucky 
inspiration  came  to  Froberger.  He  filled  the 
bellows  quickly,  ran  to  the  organist's  bench  and 
began  to  play  in  a  style  which  was  at  once  recog- 
nized by  a  court  lady  who  had  formerly  been  in 
Vienna.    He  was  speedily  sent  for,  told  his  strange 


THE  EPOCH  OF  THE  SONATA. 


217 


Story,  played  before  the  King  and  his  court,  was 
received  with  great  favor  and  richly  rewarded. 

After  a  while  he  took  his  departure  for  Vienna, 
but  his  long  absence  had  given  offence  and  this  had 
been  aggravated  by  some  slanders  so  that  he  was 
not  even  admitted  to  the  presence  of  the  Emperor. 
Mortified  and  indignant,  he  sent  in  his  resignation 
and  withdrew  to  Mayence,  where  he  passed  the 
remainder  of  his  days  in  opulence,  but  in  ill-humor 
with  himself  and  with  all  the  world. 

These  names  bring  us  to  the  period  of  Sebastian 
Bach,  and  with  him  to  the  climax  of  polyphonic 
composition  for  the  harpsichord.  But  the  seeds  of 
the  free  lyric,  monophonic  style  had  long  been  sown, 
and,  as  we  have  seen,  sprung  up  into  luxuriant 
growth  in  the  next  generation. 

Even  during  Sebastian  Bach's  lifetime,  signs  of 
the  approaching  change  were  not  wanting.  Johann 
Kuhnau  (1667-1722),  Bach's  immediate  predecessor 
in  the  Cantorship  of  the  St.  Thomas  School  in 
Leipzig,  did  much  toward  laying  the  foundations 
on  which  Emanuel  Bach  built.  He  wrote  sonatas 
in  from  three  to  eight  movements,  and  strove  toward 
a  lyric  style  and  in  the  direction  of  freeing  the  harp- 
sichord from  the  shackles  of  counterpoint. 

B.      THE  EPOCH  OF  THE  SONATA. 

The  Vienna  of  Mozart  and  Beethoven  contained 
a  group  of  distinguished  players  and  composers  ; 
the  Abbe  Vogler,  Sterkel,  Wanhal,  Gelinek,  Pleyel, 


2l8 


HISTORY  OF  PIANOFORTE  MUSIC. 


Wolfl,  Steibelt  and  Dussek.  Their  works  are  now 
obsolete,  only  one  or  two  pieces  of  Dussek  being 
still  current. 

J.  N.  Hummel  (i  778-1837),  a  pupil  of  Mozart, 
was,  in  his  day,  considered  the  rival  of  Beethoven. 
He  was  an  accomplished  musician,  a  player  of  the 
first  rank,  a  prolific  composer,  and  a  successful 
teacher.  His  works  are  now  rapidly  passing  into 
oblivion. 

Carl  Czerny  (1791-1857)  was  another  Viennese 
celebrity  ;  a  player  of  high  rank,  a  teacher  of  great 
reputation  and  a  prolific  composer  of  studies  and 
pieces,  mostly  intended  for  teaching  purposes. 

His  studies,  for  the  most  part,  amplified  and  em- 
phasized technical  points  to  be  met  with  in  de- 
menti. The  content  of  his  pieces  is  never  impor- 
tant. None  of  them  go  beyond  the  merely  melodi- 
ous and  pleasing.  In  this  he  is  fully  in  accord  with 
the  Parisian  pianists,  his  contemporaries,  Kalkbren- 
ner,  Herz,  Bertiai,  Huenten,  et  id  onme  genus,  the 
"  Philistines  "  against  whom  the  Romanticists  waged 
merciless  war. 

Some  of  dementi's  pupils  deserved  and  received 
much  greater  consideration. 

J.  B.  Cramer  (1771-1858)  lived  in  England,  was 
an  excellent  pianist  and  musician,  and  composed  a 
great  deal  of  music,  none  of  which  is  now  current 
except  his  famous  studies. 

LuDwiG  Berger  (17 7 7-1 839)  was  Mendelssohn's 
teacher,  and  also  wrote  some  valuable  studies. 

A.  A.  Klengel  (1783-185 2)  was  a  renowned 


THE  EPOCH  OF  THE  SONATA, 


219 


pianist  and  organist  and  cultivated  mainly  the  poly- 
phonic style  of  writing.  His  forty-eight  canons  and 
the  same  number  of  fugues  are  very  learned  produc- 
tions. 

Last,  but  not  least,  among  dementi's  pupils, 
comes  John  Field  (i 782-1837),  who  fairly  ushered 
in  the  Romantic  era  by  inventing  the  Nocturne,  a 
lyric  composition  of  a  distinctly  sentimental  charac- 
ter, intended  to  express  the  various  phases  of  feel- 
ing appropriate  to  the  night  time.  They  served  as 
models  for  Chopin's  compositions  of  the  same  name  ; 
and,  although  the  Chopin  nocturnes  are  vastly  more 
significant  than  Field's,  the  resemblance  was  so 
apparent  that  Chopin  ^vas  thought  by  many  to  have 
been  a  pupil  of  Field. 

These  nocturnes  were  a  really  original  invention. 
In  these,  for  the  first  time,  the  lyric  sentimental  ele- 
ment was  entirely  freed  from  all  considerations  of 
classical  Form.  There  was  no  preconceived,  elab- 
orate plan  ;  the  form  is  the  simplest  possible  group- 
ing of  single  periods,  is  reduced  to  its  lowest  terms 
and  to  an  entirely  subordinate  position  ;  the  senti- 
ment is  first  and  the  form  second.  They  are  the 
fore-runners  of  the  Songs  without  Words,  the  Bal- 
lades, Impromptus,  Fantasias,  in  short,  of  the  whole 
family  of  lyric  pieces  which  began  to  come  into 
vogue  about  the  year  1830. 

Field  was  an  Irishman,  born  in  Dublin.  After 
studying  some  time  with  Clementi,  he  went  with 
him  to  Russia  in  1804  and  spent  most  of  the  remain- 
der of  his  life  there.    He  wrote  sonatas,  concertos, 


220 


HISTORY  OF  PIANOFORTE  MUSIC. 


and  other  pieces,  and  was  one  of  the  best  pianists  of 
his  time. 

One  of  the  most  prominent  figures  of  this  time 
was  Ignaz  Moscheles  *(i794-i87o).  He  was  born 
in  Prague  of  Hebrew  parents,  early  made  the  ac- 
quaintance of  nearly  all  the  best  music  then  pub- 
lished, distinguished  himself  as  virtuoso,  artist  and 
composer,  played  and  taught  a  long  time  in  Lon- 
don, became  very  intimate  with  Mendelssohn,  with 
whom  he  was  associated  in  the  Leipzig  conservatory, 
and  continued  his  connection  with  that  school  until 
his  death. 

As  a  player,  Moscheles  was  celebrated  for  his  bold 
and  brilliant  style,  for  the  power  and  variety  of  his 
touch,  and  for  his  octave  playing.  Curiously 
enough,  he  executed  octave  passages  with  a  stiff 
wrist. 

As  a  composer  he  was  very  prolific,  wrote  seven 
great  concertos,  highly  thought  of  and  effective  in 
their  day,  but  now  superseded  ;  several  sonatas, 
three  sets  of  highly  esteemed  studies  and  a  large 
number  of  parlor  pieces  which  retained  their  popu- 
larity for  a  long  time. 

Moscheles  outlived  by  many  years  the  three  great 
Romantic  composers.  He  was  well  acquainted  with 
their  works,  knew  them  all  personally,  and  was  inti- 
mately associated  with  two  of  them. 

Of  course  his  own  work  as  a  composer  could  not 

♦See"  Recent  Music  and  Musicians,''  by  Moscheles  (Henry  Holt  &  Co., 
N.  Y.),  for  an  account  of  his  own  life  and  works.  It  is  also  a  somewhat 
gossipy  and  very  interesting  record  of  his  intercourse  with  the  famous  mu- 
sicians of  the  first  half  of  this  century. 


CONTEMPORARIES  OF  THE  ROMANTICISTS. 


221 


help  being  affected  by  the  Romantic  ideals,  but  he,  Chap.  xiv. 
nevertheless,  remained  an  essentially  classical  com- 
poser and  player  in  his  tastes  and  tendencies. 

He  was  a  teacher  of  great  reputation,  and  formed 
many  players,  who  attained  distinction. 

C.      THE    CONTEMPORARIES   OF    THE  ROMANTICISTS 
AND  THEIR  SUCCESSORS  TO  THE  PRESENT. 

It  will  be  remembered  that  all  the  Romanticists, 
including  Liszt,  were  born  in  the  years  1 809-11. 
About  the  same  time  were  born  a  number  of  dis- 
tinguished musicians,  of  a  lower  rank  than  the  first, 
but  still  of  no  small  merit. 

Prominent  among  these  is  Adolph  Henselt  (born  Henseit, 
1814),  a  distinguished  virtuoso,  a  thorough  musician 
and  a  composer  of  marked  ability.  Although  his 
compositions,  so  far  as  known  to  the  present  writer, 
involve  no  technical  principles  not  announced  and 
exemplified  by  others,  yet  his  Etudes,  op.  2  and  op. 
5,  for  example,  which  are  among  the  best  known  of 
his  works,  emphasized  certain  effects  in  a  way  that 
stamps  his  style  with  marked  individuality.  These 
effects  are  especially  the  delivery  of  a  melody  legato 
with  an  accompaniment  of  chords  to  be  played  by 
the  same  hand,  the  chords  being  often  at  such  a 
distance  from  the  notes  of  the  melody  as  makes  the 
proper  execution  of  these  passages  very  difficult. 
He  also  sets  a  similar  task  for  both  hands  simultane- 
ously. In  some  of  these  etudes  the  left  hand  has  a 
series  of  widely  extended  chords,  the  upper  notes  of 


222 


HISTORY  OF  PIANOFORTE  MUSIC. 


which  constitute  the  principal  melody,  while  the 
right  hand  has  a  figured  accompaniment.  His 
master-work  is  his  great  concerto  in  F  minor,  op.  i6. 

Henselt  has  been  settled  in  St.  Petersburg  since 
about  1837,  occupied  mainly  in  teaching. 

Another  conspicuous  figure  in  this  generation  of 
musicians  was  Ferdinand  Hiller,  born  181 1,  at 
Frankfort-on-the-Main.  Like  Moscheles  and  Men- 
delssohn, he  was  of  Jewish  parentage.  He  was  a 
pupil  of  Hummel,  and  occupies  somewhat  the  same 
position  with  reference  to  the  Romanticists  that 
Hummel  did  to  Beethoven,  Schubert  and  Weber. 
He  is  a  consummate  musician,  a  respected  com- 
poser, without  much  genius,  a  fine  player  of  the 
classical  school  and  an  able  conductor.  He  has 
been  for  many  years  director  of  the  conservatory  at 
Cologne. 

Stephen  Heller  (born  1815)  is  a  sort  of  miniature 
Chopin.  He  has  written  nothing  great,  but  much 
that  is  refined,  elegant,  and  within  certain  limits  ex- 
pressive. He  is  best  known  by  his  excellent  studies 
in  phrasing  and  interpretation,  op.  16,  45,  46  and 
47.  He  has  been  for  many  years  a  teacher  in 
Paris. 

Other  good  composers  or  players  or  both  of  this 
generation  were  Th.  KuUak.  A.  Dreyschock,  Ernst 
Haberbier,  Robert  Volkman,  W.  Sterndale  Bennett, 
Niels  W.  Gade,  Louis  Koehler,  Leopold  de  Meyer, 
Fritz  Spindler,  Henry  Litolff,  Charles  Halle,  Wm. 
Taubert,  Albert  Loeschorn,  Carl  Eckert,  H.  Dorn 
and  C.  F.  Weitzmann,  the  distinguished  Berlin  com- 


CONTEMPORARIES  OF  THE  ROMANTICISTS. 


223 


poser,  teacher,  theorist  and  critic  of  Berlin,  author 
of  the  Histor}^  of  Pianoforte  Music  (Geschichte  des 
Clavierspiels  und  der  Clavierhteratur)  heretofore 
cited. 

To  a  somewhat  later  generation  belong  Joachim 
Raff,  Wm.  Speidel,  Ch.  Lysberg,  Th.  Kirchner,  Otto 
Dresel,  Auguste  Dupont,  Otto  Goldschmidt,  Rich 
Hoffmann,  Solomon  Jadassohn,  Louis  Ehlert,  Louis 
M.  Gottschalk,  H.  A.  Wollenhaupt,  Waldemar  Bar- 
giel,  Dionys  Prueckner,  Hans  von  Buelow,  the  two 
brothers  Anton  and  Nicolaus  Rubinstein,  Th. 
Leschetizky,  Ernst  Pauer  and  Carl  Reinecke. 

Want  of  space  forbids  more  than  the  mere  men- 
tion of  the  names  of  most  of  these  men.  Brief 
notices  of  them  may  be  found  in  Mathews'  "  Dic- 
tionary of  Music  and  Musicians  "  (Part  IX  of  "  How 
to  Understand  Music "),  and  more  extended  ac- 
counts in  Grove's  Dictionary. 

But  at  least  four  of  them  are  too  important  or  too 
interesting  to  American  readers  to  be  passed  over 
thus  lightly.  These  are  Raff,  A.  Rubinstein,  von 
Buelow  and  Gottschalk. 

Joachim  Raff  was  born  at  Lachen  in  Switzer- 
land, in  1822.  His  youth  and  early  manhood  were 
one  long  struggle  with  poverty,  by  which  his  educa- 
tion, both  musical  and  collegiate,  was  greatly 
hindered.  But  he  had  great  energy  and  persistence 
and  a  natural  tendency  to  music.  He  supported 
himself  by  teaching  and  afterward  by  composing 
numerous  parlor  pieces  for  the  piano.  He  grad- 
ually made  himself  a  fine  player  and  musician,  and 


224 


HISTORY  OF  PIANOFORTE  MUSIC. 


became  a  great  master  of  orchestral  composition. 
He  was  befriended  by  Liszt  after  the  usual  generous 
fashion  of  that  master,  and  received  from  him 
encouragement  and  influential  aid  as  well  as  valuable 
criticism. 

Raff  ranks  as  one  of  the  first  of  living  composers, 
and  has  written  a  large  number  of  important  works, 
including  ten  great  symphonies,  operas,  cantatas, 
chamber  music,  concertos  for  different  instruments 
with  orchestra,  songs,  pianoforte  pieces,  etc.  The 
latter  are  less  important  than  most  of  his  other 
works,  many  of  them  having  been  written  down  to 
the  popular  demand  out  of  the  mere  necessity  of 
making  a  living.  They  are  excellent  parlor  pieces, 
however,  and  some  of  his  pianoforte  pieces  are 
wholly  worthy  of  so  melodious  and  learned  a  writer. 
Among  them  there  is  perhaps  nothing  better  than 
his  pianoforte  concerto,  which  is  as  fresh  as  it  is 
learned  and  skilfully  written. 

Raff  has  been  director  of  the  Conser\'atory  at 
Frankfort-on-the-Main  since  1877. 

Anton  Gregor  Rubinstein  was  born  in  Russia, 
of  Jewish  parents,  in  1829.  He  showed  remarkable 
musical  gifts  in  early  childhood,  studied  the  piano- 
forte in  Moscow,  and  made  his  first  concert  tour  at 
the  age  of  ten  years.  During  this  tour  he  went  to 
Paris,  where  he  spent  some  time  with  Liszt.  The 
next  year  he  went  to  London  and  also  played  on 
the  continent. 

In  1845  he  studied  composition  in  Berlin,  taught 
a  couple  of  years  in  Pressburg  and  Vienna,  and 


CONTEMPORARIES  OF  THE  ROMANTICISTS. 


225 


then  returned  to  St.  Petersburg,  where  he  devoted 
himself  to  study  until  1856.  From  that  time  he  has 
been  considered  one  of  the  world's  greatest  artists. 
His  countrymen  have  heaped  honors  upon  him,  and 
he  has  rendered  great  services  in  return. 

He  founded  the  Conservatory  at  St.  Petersburg  in 
1862,  and  was  director  of  it  for  five  years.  Since 
then  he  has  made  many  concert  tours  and  has 
devoted  much  of  his  time  to  composition. 

His  American  tour  in  (1872-3),  gave  us  oppor- 
tunity to  admire  his  wonderful  technic,  the  power 
and  delicacy  of  his  touch,  the  refinement,  grace, 
fire,  force  and  imagination  of  his  playing.  In  most 
of  these  qualities  he  has  never  been  surpassed, 
unless,  perhaps,  by  Liszt. 

As  an  interpreter  of  the  masters,  Rubinstein  is 
somewhat  erratic,  seeming  to  treat  the  piece  in  hand 
as  if  it  was  an  improvisation  and  often  paying  small 
respect  to  the  composer's  intention.  His  interpre- 
tations also  vary  with  his  moods. 

He  has  been  a  prolific  composer  of  piano  music, 
songs,  chamber  music,  etc.,  has  written  five  sym- 
phonies and  a  number  of  operas  and  oratorios.  Of 
all  these  his  "  Ocean  "  symphony  holds  thus  far  the 
highest  acknowledged  rank,  and  next  to  that  his 
chamber  music.  His  pianoforte  music  is  almost  all 
brilliant  and  effective  and  some  of  it  is  genuinely 
poetic.  Its  permanent  worth  is  yet  to  be  deter- 
mined. 

Hans  Guido  von  Buelow  was  born  in  Dresden 
in  1830.    His  musical  gifts  did  not  appear  until 


226 


HISTORY  OF  PIANOFORTE  MUSIC. 


after  a  dangerous  attack  of  brain  fever,  in  his  ninth 
year.  He  was  then  placed  under  the  instruction  of 
that  most  original  and  excellent  teacher,  Fr.  Wieck. 
He  after^vards  studied  the  pianoforte  with  Litolff, 
and  theory  with  M.  K.  Eberwein  and  Moritz  Haupt- 
mann.  His  parents  were  unwilling  that  he  should 
become  a  professional  musician,  and  sent  him  to 
Leipzig  in  1848  to  study  jurisprudence  at  the  uni- 
versity. The  next  year  he  was  at  the  Berlin  Univer- 
sity, interested  in  politics,  writing  democratic  articles, 
and  musical  papers  defending  the  writings  of  Liszt 
and  Wagner, 

In  1850  he  finally  broke  with  the  law  and  went  to 
Zuerich  to  have  the  advantage  of  AVagner's  advice 
and  counsel.  The  next  year  he  went  to  Weimar  to 
continue  his  pianoforte  studies  with  Liszt,  and  two 
years  later  he  made  his  first  concert  tour. 

From  1855  to  1864  he  was  the  leading  pianoforte 
teacher  in  Stern's  Conser\"atory  at  Berlin.  In  the 
latter  year  he  went  to  Munich  as  conductor  of  the 
Royal  Opera  and  director  of  the  Conser\'atory  of 
Music.  His  intimacy  with  Liszt  and  Wagner  con- 
tinued, and  he  spent  part  of  1866-7  with  Wagner  at 
Lucerne. 

This  friendship  had  a  tragic  ending.  Von  Buelow 
had  married  in  1857,  Cosima,  a  natural  daughter  of 
Liszt  by  the  Countess  of  Agoult,  with  whom  Liszt 
had  lived  on  the  same  terms  that  Chopin  lived  with 
Mme.  George  Sand.  Mme.  von  Buelow  seems  to  have 
inherited  her  parents'  disregard  of  the  obligations  of 
the  marriage  tie.    At  any  rate,  after  living  with  her 


SUCCESSORS  OF  THE  ROMANTICISTS. 


227 


husband  some  twelve  years  and  bearing  him  five 
children,  it  occurred  to  her  that  she  preferred 
Richard  Wagner  to  him,  and  she  forthwith  went  to 
live  with  the  elder  musician,  taking  her  children  with 
her,  and  with  him  she  continued  until  his  death. 

Von  Buelow  procured  a  divorce,  left  Munich,  and 
has  since  spent  his  time  largely  in  concert  tours  in 
Europe  and  America.  It  has  been  repeatedly  said 
that  he  was  insane,  an  exaggeration  probably 
occasioned  by  his  numerous  eccentricities  and  by 
the  nervous  excitement  due  to  his  domestic  misfor- 
tunes and  his  overwork. 

He  has  always  been  an  indefatigable  worker  in 
numerous  fields.  His  compositions  are  not  widely 
known  and  have  made  little  impression  on  the  world 
at  large.  But  he  is  an  excellent  conductor,  a  pro- 
found and  accurate  scholar,  one  of  the  best  of 
editors  of  ancient  and  modern  classics,  and  a  pianist 
of  the  highest  rank. 

He  has  a  remarkable  memor\',  conducts  a  large 
repertoire  of  symphonies  and  operas,  including  the 
most  intricate  and  difficult  ones  of  Wagner,  without 
a  score;  and  plays  nearly  the  whole  range  of  piano- 
forte music  from  the  most  ancient  times  to  the 
present  from  memory.  No  wonder  if  he  were 
insanel 

As  a  player,  his  technic  is  beyond  criticism  and 
his  interpretations  characterized  by  a  consummate 
intelligence  which  includes  the  minutest  details  in 
all  their  relations.  The  care  with  which  all  the 
ideas  are  discriminated,  each   receiving   its  due 


Chap.  XIV. 


Peculiari- 
ties. 


Attain- 
ments. 


As  a 
player. 


228 


HISTORY  OF  PIANOFORTE  MUSIC. 


proportion  of  emphasis,  is  a  revelation  to  most 
players. 

Withal,  he  is  not  a  cold  player,  as  some  think, 
although  he  lacks  the  passionate  abandon  and  head- 
long rush  of  Rubinstein.  There  is  warmth  and 
passion  enough,  but  they  are  always  controlled  by 
intelligence.  His  concert  tour  in  this  country,  made 
in  1874-5,  two  years  after  Rubinstein's,  was  very 
successful,  and  contributed  much  to  the  increase  of 
musical  appreciation  and  intelligence. 

Louis  Moreau  Gottschalk,  the  first  American 
pianist,  who  became  known  all  over  the  country  by 
his  concert  tours,  was  born  in  New  Orleans  in  1829. 
He  was  of  Creole  blood. 

In  1 841  he  went  to  Paris,  studied  with  Charles 
Halle  and  with  Chopin,  became  a  pianist  of  very 
high  rank,  made  concert  tours  on  the  continent  and 
returned  to  America  in  1853.  The  rest  of  his  life 
was  spent  in  concert  tours  in  North  and  South 
America.    He  died  in  Rio  Janeiro  in  1869. 

He  had  marked  originality  as  player  and  com- 
poser, but  his  compositions  are  not  likely  to  be  per- 
manent. They  are  facile,  fluent,  and  characteristic, 
but  the  feeling  in  them  is  shallow,  often  artificial 
and  exaggerated,  and  may  properly  be  characterized 
as  sentimentality  rather  than  sentiment. 

His  programmes  were  largely  made  up  of  them 
to  the  exclusion  of  better  things,  but  he  was  among  the 
first  to  give  the  American  public  ideas  of  fine  touch, 
delicacy,  power  and  consummate  ease  and  mastery 
in  performance  as  well  as  of  expression,  within  his 


SUCCESSORS  OF  THE  ROMANTICISTS. 


229 


somewhat  narrow  range,  and  so  he  contributed 
much  toward  laying  the  foundations  of  musical 
appreciation  and  cultivation  in  this  country. 

Of  composers  born  since  1830,  Johannes  Brahms 
(born  1833)  heads  the  list,  followed  by  Camille  St. 
Saens  (1835),  Adolf  Jensen  (1837-79),  Josef  Rhein- 
berger  (1839),  Peter  Tschaikowsky  (1840),  Louis 
Brassin  (1840)  and  his  brother  Leopold,  Edward 
Grieg  (1843),  Phillip  Scharwenka  (1847),  his  brother 
Xaver  Scharwenka  (1850),  and  Moritz  Moszkowski 

(1853)- 

It  is  still  too  early  to  determine  the  permanent 
rank  of  these  men,  even  of  Brahms,  who  is  the  best 
known  and  is  one  of  the  greatest  of  living  musi- 
cians. 

He  was  ushered  into  the  musical  world  by  Schu- 
mann as  a  young  man  of  the-  greatest  promise.  This 
promise  he  has  at  least  fulfilled  in  large  measure 
His  two  symphonies  have  great  merits,  both  of  com- 
position and  invention,  and  so  have  his  songs, 
chamber-music  and  pianoforte-music. 

His  concertos  are  of  the  most  difficult,  combining 
all  the  technical  difficulties  yet  invented,  and  show- 
ing deep  marks  of  the  influence  of  Schumann  and 
hardly  less  of  that  of  Liszt. 

St.  Saens  is  an  organist  and  pianist  of  great 
eminence  in  Paris.  His  orchestral  pieces  the 
"  Danse  Macabre  "  and  "  Phaeton  "  are  well  known 
in  this  country  and  are  among  the  cleverest  pieces 
of  programme  music  ever  written.  The  latter, 
especially,  so  vividly  reproduces  the  impressions 


Chap.  XIV. 


Composers 
since  1830. 


Brahms^ 
fSjJ. 


St  SaenSy 
1835. 


HISTORY  OF  PIANOFORTE  MUSIC. 


made  on  the  feelings  by  the  successive  events  of  the 
well-known  myth  that  the  story  can  be  followed  in 
the  music  without  the  least  difficulty. 

Jensen  is  best  known  in  this  country  by  his 
Etudes,  op.  32. 

Rheinberger  is  a  teacher  and  conductor  in 
Munich,  and  has  written  important  works  in  many 
departments. 

Louis  Brassin  and  his  brother  Leopold  are 
Belgians,  and  both  are  composers  of  marked  ability. 

TscHAiKOwsKY  is  tcachcr  of  composition  in  the 
Moscow  Conservatory,  and  has  shown  great  ability 
in  different  departments  of  composition.  His 
pianoforte  music  includes  a  concerto,  and  is  coming 
into  constantly  increasing  prominence  among 
pianists. 

Grieg  is  a  Norwegian  composer  of  marked  origin- 
ality. His  sonatas  and  other  forms  involving  sus- 
tained thinking  and  thematic  development  are  frag- 
mentary and  weak,  notwithstanding  detached 
beauties.  His  strength  lies  in  his  short  character- 
istic pieces  for  the  pianoforte,  marked  by  the  pecu- 
liar coloring  of  the  Scandinavian  folk-music. 

The  two  Scharwenkas  are  prominent  teachers  and 
composers  in  Berlin.  The  pianoforte  music  of  both 
is  highly  esteemed  and  its  reputation  is  increasing. 

MoszKOWSKi  has  perhaps  greater  genius  than  any 
of  the  younger  generation.  He  lives  in  Berlin.  His 
pianoforte  pieces  are  rapidly  making  their  way 
wherever  music  is  known. 

To  these  names  must  be  added  that  of  Giovanni 


THE  SUCCESSORS  OF  THE  ROMANTICISTS. 


231 


Sgambati,  an  Italian  pianist  and  composer  whose 
work  marks  an  era  in  the  history  of  pianoforte  music 
in  Italy.  He  was  born  in  Rome  in  1843.  His 
mother  was  an  English  woman,  which  may  account, 
in  part,  for  the  peculiar  turn  of  his  genius. 

It  may  almost  be  said  that  there  has  been  no 
great  Italian  pianists  since  the  days  of  Scarlatti  ; 
for  Clementi,  although  an  Italian  by  birth  and  blood, 
was  an  Englishman  in  his  education.  Up  to  a  very 
recent  period,  Italian  music,  since  the  rise  of  Italian 
opera,  has  been  almost  exclusively  in  that  field  ;  a 
field,  too,  long  since  thoroughly  discredited  in  the 
rest  of  Europe  by  the  increasing  predominance  of 
the  intellectual  over  the  sensuous  element. 

The  musical  pre-eminence  long  enjoyed  by  the 
Netherlanders  and  afterward  by  the  Italians  was 
transferred  to  Germany  not  long  after  the  death  of 
Palestrina ;  and  there  it  has  remained  ever  since. 

But  of  late  years  there  has  been  a  marvelous  in- 
tellectual awakening  in  Italy.  Verdi,  pre-eminent 
in  the  purely  pleasing  and  effective  style  of  Italian 
opera,  produced,  at  an  age  when  most  composers  are 
past  learning  from  their  opponents,  his  "  Aida"  and 
his  Manzoni  Requiem,  two  great  works  which  show 
him  to  have  been  powerfully  affected  by  the  theories 
and  practice  of  Wagner. 

Sgambati,  as  pianist  and  composer,  belongs  as 
completely  to  the  new  school  of  romanticism  as 
Brahms,  the  friend  and  disciple  of  Schumann.  He 
is  the  one  Italian  pianist  and  composer  who  now 
enjoys  a  high  reputation  all  over  Europe.  Before 


232 


HISTORY  OF  PIANOFORTE  MUSIC. 


Chap.  XIV. 


he  was  twenty  he  had  become  famous  for  his  playing 
of  Bach,  Haendel,  Beethoven,  Chopin  and  Schu- 
mann. When  Liszt  went  to  Rome,  about  this  time, 
Sgambati  availed  himself  to  the  full  of  the  great 
master's  friendly  advice  and  criticism,  and  became 
not  only  a  great  pianist,  but  an  excellent  musician, 
conductor  and  composer.  He  was  the  first  to  give 
orchestral  performances  in  Rome  of  the  works  of 
the  great  German  masters. 

He  has  written  some  important  orchestral  works 
and  chamber  music,  as  well  as  pianoforte  pieces  and 
a  concerto.  This  last  displays  most  of  the  technical 
difficulties  peculiar  to  the  Romantic  writers,  and 
shows  very  remarkably  the  influence  of  Schumann. 
It  has  high  intellectual  qualities  and  no  small  emo- 
tional significance. 

Besides  these  there  are  hundreds  of  meritorious 
composers  whose  names  can  not  be  mentioned  here, 
for  lack  of  space. 

Of  the  multitudes  of  living  pianists  of  note  only  a 
few  can  be  spoken  of  here.  To  give  first  place  to 
the  ladies  :  there  are  Marie  Krebs,  Madeline  Schiller, 
Anna  Mehlig  and  Sophie  Menter,  besides  two  in 
whom  Americans  are  especially  interested.  Annette 
Essipoff  and  Mme.  Julia  Rive-King,  the  former 
from  her  American  tour  in  1875,  and  the  latter  be- 
cause she  is  an  American  by  birth.  Both  are 
pianists  and  interpretative  artists  of  very  high  rank. 

Mme.  Essipoff  is  a  Russian,  born  in  1853.  She 
studied  in  St.  Petersburg  with  Leschetizky,  now  her 
husband.     Her  playing  is  characterized  by  grace, 


LIVING  PIANISTS. 


233 


delicacy,  refinement  and  especially  by  the  beautiful 
"  coloring "  she  produces  by  her  exquisite  touch. 
She  excels  as  an  interpreter  of  Chopin. 

Mme.  Rive-King  was  born  in  Cincinnati,  in  1853. 
Her  father  was  a  portrait  painter  and  her  mother  an 
able  teacher  of  the  voice  and  the  pianoforte.  She 
showed  talent  very  early,  went  to  New  York  and 
studied  with  the  well-known  teacher  and  composer 
S.  B.  Mills,  and  then  spent  some  time  with  Liszt  in 
Weimar. 

Since  her  return  in  1875  she  has  played  numerous 
programmes  of  the  highest  order,  all  over  the  United 
States  and  Canada,  from  Boston  to  San  Francisco, 
and  has  earned  a  reputation  of  which  Americans  are 
proud.  Her  repertory  includes  the  best  of  all 
schools,  from  Bach  to  Liszt  and  the  younger  com- 
posers since,  and  she  is  an  admirable  interpreter  of 
the  greatest  works  for  the  pianoforte.  She  has  also 
composed  graceful  and  pleasing  pieces. 

In  1877  she  was  married  to  Frank  H.  King,  her 
manager,  and  now  lives  in  New  York. 

Of  male  pianists  known  in  this  country  must  be 
mentioned  Franz  Rummel,  Constantine  Sternberg, 
Rafael  Joseffy  and  Wm.  H.  Sherwood.  The  two 
former  are  both  pianists  of  high  reputation. 

Joseffy  is  one  of  the  greatest  of  living  virtuosi. 
He  is  a  Hungarian,  born  in  1852,  and  was  a  pupil 
of  Moscheles  and  Tausig.  His  technic  is  unsur- 
passed. As  an  interpreter  he  excels  in  such  works 
as  require  exquisite  delicacy,  refinement  and  finish, 
being  much  less  successful  in  those  which  demand 
10* 


234 


HISTORY  OF  PIANOFORTE  MUSIC. 


breadth,  power,  depth  and  nobiHty  of  style,  He  has 
been  in  this  country  since  1879,  and  has  become 
well  known. 

Wm.  H.  Sherwood  was  born  in  Lyons,  N.  Y.,  in 
1854,  and  was  the  son  of  a  music  teacher.  His  tal- 
ent developed  early,  and  he  went  to  Berlin  in  1871 
to  study  with  Kullak,  and  afterward  spent  some 
time  with  Liszt. 

After  four  years  spent  in  Europe  he  returned  to 
America  and  has  since  played  in  many  of  the  cities 
of  the  United  States,  everywhere  winning  the  repu- 
tation of  a  pianist  and  interpretative  artist  of  the  first 
rank.  His  technic  is  equal  to  all  possible  demands, 
and  he  interprets  the  greatest  as  well  as  the  most 
delicate  and  refined  compositions  of  all  schools  with 
the  true  insight  of  a  born  artist.  His  rendering  of 
the  Schumann  "  Etudes  Symphoniques,"  the  great 
Sonata,  op.  in,  and  the  E  flat  concerto  of  Beetho- 
ven, and  the  Bach  Chromatic  Fantasia  and  Fugue, 
are  among  the  most  satisfactory  performances  it  has 
ever  been  the  good  fortune  of  the  present  writer  to 
hear. 

Mr.  Sherwood  has  also  composed  several  pieces 
of  much  promise. 

He  is  now  settled  in  Boston,  where  he  occupies 
an  honored  position. 


CONCLUSION. 


Our  survey  is  now  complete.  We  have  passed  in 
review  all  the  important  composers  of  pianoforte 
music,  have  analyzed  their  work,  classified  them 
according  to  the  principles  which  governed  their 
creative  activity,  and  traced  the  development  of  those 
principles  to  their  results  in  the  different  epochs. 
The  technical  side  of  pianoforte  playing  has  been 
similarly  treated,  and  composers  below  the  first  or 
epoch-making  rank  have  received  as  much  attention 
as  the  limits  of  the  book  would  permit. 

In  the  light  of  this  discussion  we  may  perceive 
that  the  time  in  which  we  live  belongs  to  the  Ro- 
mantic epoch.  The  three  great  romanticists  died 
early,  but  their  great  colleague,  Liszt,  still  lives,  and 
it  is  but  a  few  days  since  Richard  Wagner,  a  greater 
mind  than  any  since  Beethoven,  and  an  extreme 
Romanticist,  was  laid  in  his  grave  at  Bayreuth. 
Wagner,  to  be  sure,  was  not  a  pianoforte  composer, 
but  it  can  hardly  be  doubted  that  his  indirect  influ- 
ence has  had  no  small  effect  on  all  departments  of 
musical  activity  and  especially  production.  That 
influence  is  apparently  on  the  increase,  and  so  is 
that  of  Schumann,  the  most  intensely  romantic  of 
pianoforte  composers.  The  public  is  beginning  to 
understand  both  Schumann  and  Wagner,  and  the 
235 


236 


HISTORY  OF  PIANOFORTE  MUSIC. 


^silS!'^"  ^^^^     interest  in  the  Romantic  composers  seems  to 

—  be  rising. 
^Zj^ow        Moreover,  all  the  rising  young  composers  show 

P^e-  strono-ly  the  influence  of  Schumann,  and  all  are  per- 

dominant.  '  r- 

meated  with  Romantic  ideas.  The  aim  of  all  com- 
posers of  standing,  nowadays,  is  to  give  worthy 
expression  to  some  phase  of  emotional  experience. 
Originality  is  shown,  as  in  the  case  of  Grieg,  Svend- 
sen  and  others,  in  seeking  some  peculiar  manifesta- 
tion of  feeling,  perhaps  some  national  or  provincial 
type,  and  giving  it  adequate  musical  embodiment. 
The  intelligence  of  composers  is  directed,  not,  as  in 
the  classical  epoch,  to  the  invention  of  new  and 
more  elaborate  forms,  or  to  the  development  of 
existing  forms  to  their  logical  limits,  but  to  the  more 
complete  and  subtle  com.prehension  of  the  relation 
of  music  to  feeling.  Their  productive  work  is  the 
embodiment  of  the  results  of  this  increase  of  intelli- 
gence. There  are,  indeed,  composers  who  lay  great 
stress  on  the  intellectual  side  of  music  as  represented 
in  Form  ;  who  write  sonatas,  symphonies,  fugues  ; 
there  are  even  attempts  to  revive  the  suite  and  the 
ancient  dance  forms.  There  are  those,  too,  who 
emphasize  the  sensuous  at  the  expense  of  the  intel- 
tectual  and  emotional  elements  of  music.  But,  on 
the  whole,  the  Romantic  ideal  is  dominant  and  its 
influence  seems  to  be  on  the  increase. 

But  are  there  tendencies  discernible  which  are 
likely  to  produce  a  new  revolution  in  pianoforte 
music  ?    Is  there  some  new  ideal,  conceived  or  con- 


CONCLUSION. 


237 


ceivable,  which  may  supplant  that  of  the  Romantic 
epoch  as  that  supplanted  those  which  preceded  it  ? 

So  far  as  now  appears,  the  last  question  must  be 
answered  in  the  negative.  There  are  only  three 
possible  kinds  of  ideals  in  music  :  (i)  those  which 
relate  to  sensuous  gratification,  (2)  those  which  give 
intellectual  satisfaction,  and  (3)  those  which  relate 
to  the  expression  of  feeling.  We  have  already  seen 
that  the  third  is  now  dominant,  and  is  in  process  of 
fulfillment.  The  second  once  held  exclusive  sway, 
but  is  now  merged  and  absorbed  in  the  third.  The 
romanticists  were  not  less  but  more  intellectual  than 
the  classicists,  but  their  mtelligence  was  held  subor- 
dinate to  the  new  ideal^  which  they  regarded  as 
supreme.  So  the  ideal  of  the  Pleasing  in  Sensation, 
once  supreme,  has  become  subordinate  to  the  intel- 
lectual and  emotional  elements.  But  at  the  same 
time,  the  means  of  sensuous  gratification  have  been 
immensely  enlarged,  in  connection  with  the  demands 
of  Form  and  expression.  The  resources  of  the 
modern  orchestra,  as  developed  by  Wagner,  Berlioz 
and  others  are  vastly  greater  than  ever  existed 
before,  and  the  harmonic  and  rhythmic  additions  to 
the  resources  of  pianoforte  composers  made  by 
Schumann  and  Chopin  were  very  great. 

The  only  progress  which  now  seems  possible  is  in 
the  more  perfect  and  complete  realization  of  the 
three  great  ideals  which  have  already  been  conceived 
and  in  great  measure  realized.  As  regards  piano- 
forte music,  the  direction  which  improvement  must 
take  seems  clear  enousfh.     The  limitations  of  the 


238 


HISTORY  OF  PIAXOFORTE  MUSIC. 


COKCLU 
SION. 


How  a  nfof 
instrument 
may 

supplant 
the 


instrument  are  patent  to  everj'bod}', — as  patent  as 
were  the  limitations  of  the  harpsichord  two  centuries 
ago.  The  pianoforte  produces  neither  a  sustained 
tone  nor  an  increase  of  power  in  any  tone  after  a 
string  has  been  struck.  These  defects  will  doubt- 
less be  remedied,  and  we  may  look  forward  to  a 
keyed  instrument  w^hich  shall  surpass  and  supplant 
the  pianoforte,  as  the  pianoforte  surpassed  and  sup- 
planted the  harpsichord  and  the  clavichord.  How 
this  will  be  done  and  how  long  it  will  take  we  can 
not  say.  There  are  those  even  now  who  are  work- 
ing on  the  problem. 

It  is  not  at  all  improbable  that  Helmholtz's  well- 
known  experiments  on  overtones  by  means  of  a 
series  of  tuning-forks  reinforced  by  resonators  and 
pianoforte.  "^^^^  \^  vibratiou  by  means  of  electricity,  may  point 
the  way  to  the  final  solution.  Perhaps  the  coming 
instrument  may  employ  tuning-forks  instead  of 
strings,  and  may  even  give  the  player  command  at 
will  of  all  the  varieties  of  tone-color  producible  by 
the  orchestra.  Who  knows  ?  At  any  rate,  it  seems 
plain  that  in  this  direction  we  are  to  look  for  the 
next  great  revolution  in  pianoforte  music. 

When  the  new  instrument  has  been  invented  and 
perfected  ;  when  players  and  composers  have  be- 
come thoroughly  familiar  with  its  peculiarities ; 
when  some  great  creative  genius  of  the  first  rank 
has  devoted  his  powers  to  the  production  of  music 
calculated  for  the  new  effects,  then  the  music  of 
Beethoven  and  Chopin  and  Schumann  will  be  to 
the  music  of  that  dav  what  Bach's  music  is  to  our 


coxcL  usioy. 


239 


own  time.  We  shall  have  learned  editors  "  translat- 
ing "  the  sonata  appassionata  and  the  etudes  sym- 
phoniques  "  from  the  language  of  the  pianoforte  into 
that  of  its  modern  successor,"  as  von  Buelow  has 
done  with  the  Bach  Chromatic  Fantasia  and  other 
harpsichord  music. 

But  this  is  speculation,  not  history,  and  perhaps 
even  wild  speculation.  What  our  successors  will  see 
it  will  be  idle  further  to  conjecture. 


CON-CLU- 
SION. 


INDEX. 


Affections,  66-7. 

Agoult,  Countess  of,  226, 

Aida,  opera  by  Verdi,  231. 

Albrechtsberger,  relations  to  Bee- 
thoven, 77-8. 

Anglebert,  J.  H.  d',  214. 

Arpeggios  peculiar  to  Chopin,  their 
fingering.  198,  206. 

Artists,  formerly  dependent  on  the 
patronage  of  nobles,  49,  53;  con- 
trasted with  virtuosi,  185. 

Bach,  J.  S.  his  life,  14-17;  as  a 
composer  and  player,  17,  18;  his 
works  and  style,  17-19,  29,  30, 
39,  41-46,  97. 

Bach,  C.  P.  E.  his  life,  38,  39;  his 
music  and  playing,  39-41;  what 
he  did  for  the  Sonata,  41-48. 

Ballads,  Chopin's,  153-4. 

Bargiel,  W.,  223. 

Beauty  in  music,  62,  71;  Chopin's 
love  of,  156. 

Bebung,  the,  189. 

Beethoven,  his  life  72-81,  85,  86, 
92-94;  compositions,  75,  89-92; 
content  and  character  of  his  mu- 
sic, 80-82,  85-89,  93,  99-101. 

Bennett,  \V  S  222. 

Berger,  L  218. 

Bertini,  218. 

Bird,  Wm  214 

Brahms,  Johannes  229;  influence 
of  his  technic  on  Schumann,  199. 

Brassin.  Louis  229. 

Leopold  230;  technic  shows 
influence  of  Schumann,  199. 

Buelow,  Hans  von,  223-227. 

Bull,  Dr  ,214. 


Burney's  History  of  Music,  214. 
Buxtehude,  215;  visited  by  Bach, 
15- 

Canon,  9,  10. 
Canzoni,  212. 

Chopin,  his  history,  134-152;  154- 
156;  his  playing,  137,  138,  147- 
149;  compositions,  139-141,  143, 
153-156. 

Classic,  the,  in  music,  57,  58;  95- 
98;  classic  qualities  in  Mendels- 
sohn, 132-3;  persistence  of 
classical  technic,  196. 

Clavichord,  the,  2-3:  its  technic, 
184-5. 

Clementi,  Muzio,  191-4. 
Clinging  touch,  197. 
Complex  feelings. 
Composition  an  intellectual  process, 
61. 

Concertos,  form  of,  31;  Bach's,  46; 
Mozart's,  188,  190;  Mendels- 
sohn's, 129;  Chopin's,  139-141, 
153;  Schumann's,  172-3;  Bee- 
thoven's, 193;  Raff's,  224; 
Brahm's,  229;  Sgambati's,  232. 

Concert  Stueck,  Weber's,  112. 

Content  of  music,  59-71,  97,  98; 
Beethoven's,  80-82,  86,  87,  93, 
99;  Haydn,  82-85,  99 >  Haen- 
del's  oratorios,  23,  24;  of  Bach's 
Passion  music,  24;  of  Mozart, 
57,  82-85,  99;  of  Chopin's,  154- 
156;  of  Mendelssohn's,  131-134; 
of  Schumann's,  65-68,  175-8;  of 
Schubert's,  115-118;  of  Weber's, 
111-12,  122;  of  Liszt's,  201-3. 

Correggio,  Claudio,  Merulodi,  212. 


241 


242 


INDEX. 


Counterpoint,  7-10;  double,  11. 
Couperin,  F.,  214. 
Cramer,  J.  B.,  218. 
Creation,  oratorio  by  Haydn,  50-1. 
Cristofori,  invented  pianoforte,  i, 
3- 

Czerny,  C,  218. 
Daily  Studies,  Tausig's,  207. 
Danse    Macabre,    by   St.  Saens, 
229. 

Danzi,  conductor  at  Stuttgart, 
106. 

Der  Freischuetz,  Opera  by  Weber, 

109,  no. 
Desires,  65. 

Divisions  of  the  Sonata  Form,  34, 

35,  42,  43- 
Dorn,  H  ,  222. 
Dresel,  Otto,  223. 
Dreyschock,  A  ,  222. 
Dudevant,  Aurora  (George  Sand), 

1 50-1. 
Dupont.  A.,  223. 
Dussek,  J.  L.,  218. 
Ecclesiastical  Keys,  21 1. 
Eckert,  C  ,  222. 
Ehlert,  L.,  223, 
Ehrlich,  H.,  217. 

Elaboration  in  the  Sonata-Form, 35, 
Elijah,  oratorio  by  Mendelssohn, 
130. 

Eisner,  Chopin's  teacher,  136,  145. 

Emphasis,  discriminative,  impossi- 
ble on  harpsichord,  184;  better 
on  clavichord,  184;  developed  to 
its  extreme  limit  by  Liszt,  201-2; 
Romantic  school  demands  it  es- 
pecially, 206. 

Erl-King,  song  by  Schubert,  114, 
117. 

Ernestine  von  Fricken,  friend  of 

Schumann,  169,  170. 
Essipoff,  Annette,  232-3. 
Esterhazy,  Prince,  Haydn's  patron, 

49,  50;  Mozart's,  49. 


Ethical  element  in  Beethoven,  87- 
8,  99;  lacking  in  Chopin,  155-6. 

Eugene,  Prince  of  Wuertemberg, 
patron  of  Weber,  105. 

Euryanthe,  opera  by  Weber,  109, 
no. 

Exposition  of  a  Fugue,  42 . 
Fantasias  of  early  composers,  211; 

Mozart's  in  C  minor,  118;  Bach's 

Chromatic  Fantasia,  19. 
Feelings,  63-7,  71. 
Field,  John,  219. 

Fingering,  183-4;  196-8  (See 
Technic ). 

Form,  31-6,  96;  in  Scarlatti's  Son- 
atas, 30,  41-46;  in  J.  S.  Bach's, 
30,  46;  in  C.  P.  E,  Bach's,  30,  44- 
7;  in  Haendel's  Suites,  46; 
Haydn's  Sonata-forms,  51-2, 
82;  Mozart's,  57,  58,  82,  Bee- 
thoven's, 82,  86,  87. 

Franck,  M.,  215. 

Frederick  the  Great,  16,  38,  39. 

French  Composers,  214. 

Frescobaldi,  218 

Froberger,  S.,  13,  215-17. 

Fugue,  10,  II,  16,  39. 

Gabrieli,  Andrea,  212. 

 ,  Giovanni,  212. 

Gade,  N.  W.,  222. 

Gaensbacher,  friend  of  Weber, 
104-5. 

Gelinck,  217. 

Gibbons,  Orlando,  214. 

Gladkowska,  Constantia,  relations 
to  Chopin,  139,  149. 

GHssando,  octaves,  in  Weber's 
Concertstueck,  194. 

Goldschmidt,-0.,  223. 

Gottschalk,  L.  M.,  228-29. 

Gradus  ad  Parnassum,  dementi's, 
192-4. 

Grieg,  E.,  230. 

Gumpeltzhaimer,  A.,  215 

Haberbier,  E.  222. 


INDEX. 


243 


Haendel,  G.  F.,  life  and  works, 
19-24;  monophonic  tendencies, 
29,  30,  43,  44;  form  of  the  vSuites, 
46;  his  technic,  185, 

Halle,  Chas  ,  222,  228, 

Harmony,  7. 

Harpsichord,  the,  2-4;  its  technic, 
I 8 1-4. 

Hasler,  H.  L.,  215, 

Haydn,  F.  J.,  biography,  47-52; 
compared  with  Mozart,  57;  con- 
nection with  Beethoven,  76,  77; 
compositions,  50-52,  82-5;  his 
technic,  188. 

Heller,  Stephen,  222. 

Henselt,  Adolph,  121-3. 

Henschkel,  J.  P.,  103. 

Hiller,  F.,  222. 

Hoffmann,  R.,  223. 

Hummel,  J.  N.,  218, 

Huenten,  218. 

Ideals  in  music,  62,  237. 

Ideas  in  music,  61. 

Images,  how  expressed,  54,  60. 

Imitation,  strict,  9,  10;  free,  ii, 
12. 

Intellect,  defined,  63. 
Intellectual  appreciation  of  music, 

61,  67,  231. 
"  Invitation  to  Dance,"  112. 
Italian  music,  231. 

"     opera,  Haendel's,  21-3. 
Jadassohn,  S.,  223. 
Jensen,  A.,  229,  230. 
Joseffy,  R.,  233-4. 
Kalkbrenner,  F.,  144-5,  218. 
Kerl,  J.  K.,  215. 
King,  F.  H.,  233. 
Kirchner,  T.,  223. 
Klengel,  A.  A.,  218. 
Koehler,  L.,  222. 
Krebs,  Marie,  232. 
Kreisleriana,  170. 
Kuhnau,  J.,  217. 
Kullak,  T.,  222. 


Lassus,  Orlandus,  9. 
Leschetizky.  T.,  223. 
Liszt,  sketch  of,  199-205;  works, 

201-204;  technic,  202,  204-5. 
Liszt,  Cosima,  226-7. 
Litolff,  H.,  222. 
Loeschorn,  A.,  222. 
Ludvvig,  Duke  of  Stuttgart,  106. 
Lysberg,  C,  223. 

Manzoni  Requiem,  by  Verdi,  231. 

Marchand,  L.,  212. 

Martini,  Padre,  54. 

Mason,  Wm.,  208. 

Mathews,  W.  S.  B.,  71,  208. 

Mazurkas,  Chopin's,  153-4. 

Mehlig,  Anna,  232. 

Melody,  defined,  7;  form  of,  31. 

Mendelssohn,    life   of,  125-130; 

works,  126-131,  134;  his  technic, 

197. 

Menter,  Sophie,  232. 
Mental  Activity,  63. 
Monophonic  Music,  78,  29,  31,  39- 
40. 

Moods,  simple  emotions,  65. 
Morzin,  Count,  48-9. 
Moscheles,  J.,  218-19. 
Moszkowski,  229,  230. 
Motives,  33. 

Mozart,  life  of,  52-57;  as  a  com- 
poser, 57-8;  compared  with  Bee- 
thoven, 74-5,  82;  content  of  his 
music,  83-5;  his  technic,  198- 
190. 

Muffat,  G.,  215. 

Music,  suggests  scenes,  60,  163, 
165-6,  229;  relation  to  emotion, 
69. 

"Oberon,"  by  Weber,  109-110. 
Operas,  21-3;  56,  92,  109,  no, 

212,  231. 
Oratorios,  16,  22,  23,  50,  130. 
Organ  music  for  harpsichord,  181, 

211;  fugues  of  l^ach,  16,  39. 
Ornaments,  necessity  of,  182. 


244 


INDEX. 


Pachelbel,  J-,  215. 
Padovano,  A.,  212. 
Paganini,  201-2. 
Palestrina,  9. 

Papiilons,  Schumann,  163,  165-6. 

Partitas  of  Bach,  46. 

Passion   Music,    Bach's,    16,  17, 

24 ;    rcA-ival    by  Mendelssohn, 

127. 

Pasquine,  B.,  214. 
Pauer,  E.  223. 
Pedal,  use  of,  194. 
Periods,  defined,  32. 
Period  groups,  33. 
"Perpetual  Motion,"  Weber,  112. 
Pfeiffer,      Beethoven's  teacher, 
73. 

"Phaeton,"  by  St.  Saens,  229. 
Phrases,  defined,  32. 
"Philistines,"  170-1,  218. 
Pianoforte,  construction,  3;  tech- 
nic, 2i3;  powers,  237-38. 
Pleyel,  217. 

Polonaises,  Chopin's,  153—5. 
Pol\-phonic  Music,  7-13. 
Preludes,  Chopin's,  152. 
Programme  Music,  St.  Saens,  229; 

Berlioz,  201. 
Prueckner,  D.,  223. 
Purcell,  Henr)',  212. 
Quartets,  form  of,  31. 
Quintets,  form  of,  31. 
Raff,  Joachim,  223-4. 
Raraeau,  J.  P.,  214. 
Reinecke,  C. ,  223. 
Rhapsodies,    Liszt's  Hungarian, 

201 

Rheinberger,  J  ,  229,  230. 
Rhythms,  of  Schumann,  198-9. 
Ricercari,  211. 

Ries,    Franz,   Beethoven's  violin 

teacher,  7S. 
Rigoletto,  Liszt's,  202-3. 
Riv^King,  Mme.  Julia,  223. 
Ritter's  History-  of  Music,  211. 


Romantic,  ideal  defined,  96, 99- 
loi;  characteristics  of  Chopin, 
136-37,  139-41, 152-56;  of  Men- 
delssohn, 126-28,  131-4;  of 
Schumann,  159,  162,  165-70, 
175-8;  of  Schubert,  1 16-19,  122; 
of  Mozart,  118;  of  Bach,  19;  of 
Weber,  109-12,  122;  of  Liszt, 
200-1;  tendencies,  235-6 

Rondo  in  E  flat,  op.  62,  112. 

Rore  Cipriano  di,  212. 

Rubinstein,  N.,  223. 

Rubinstein,  Anton,  224-25. 

Rummel,  Franz.  223. 

Sand,  George,  Mme.,  150-1. 

Scarlatti,  A.,  24. 

Scarlatti,  Domenico,  24,  25,  30,41- 
44;  his  technic,  1S7. 

Scharvvenkee,  P.,  229,  230, 
X.,  229,  230. 

Scheldt,  S.,  215. 

Scherzos,  Chopin's,  153-4. 

Schiller,  Madeline,  232. 

Schubert,  Franz,  life,  1 12-14; 
works,  1 13-19. 

Schumann,  life,  156-174;  music, 
163-6,  16S-9,  172;  compared 
with  Mendelssohn  and  Chopin, 
175-S;  his  technic,  198-9;  increas- 
ing influence,  235. 

Seasons,  the,  Haydn's,  50. 

Sections,  32. 

Sensibility,  defined,  63. 

Sgambati,  230-2,  199. 

Sherwood,  W.  H.,  234. 

Simple  Emotions,  64-5. 

Sonatas,  Bach's,  30,  46;  C.  P.  E. 
Bach's,  41-8;  Scarlatti's,  30,  41- 
4;  Haydn's,  51-2,  82;  Mozart's, 
57-S,  82;  Beethoven's,  82-S; 
kuhman's,  217;  of  the  i6th  cen- 
tury, 212. 

Sonata-Form,  31,  35. 

Speidel,  Wm.,  223. 

Spinet,  4. 


INDEX 


245 


Spindler,  F.,  222. 

Steibelt,  D.,  218,  89-90. 

Sternberg,  C,  233. 

Steikel,  217. 

Stretto,  in  a  fugue,  11. 

"St.  Paul,"  Mendelssohn's,  130. 

St.  Saens,  C,  229,  230. 

Stuttgart,  in  Weber's  time,  106. 

Subjects,  35,  42-3. 

Suites,  12,  45-6. 

Symphony,  form  of,  31;  Beetho- 
ven's "Eroica,"  86,  92,  Ninth, 
86,  93;  Schubert's,  in  C,  115; 
unfinished,  in  B,  115;  Tragic, 
114;  Rubinstein's  "Ocean,"  225; 
Brahms',  229;  Sgambati's,  231; 
Mendelssohn's  128-9. 

Symmetry,  32. 

Tallis,  Thomas,  214. 

Taubert,  W.,  222. 

Tausig,  Carl,  207. 

Technic,  of  the  first  classical  peri- 
od, 181-7;  J.  S.  Bach's,  184-5; 
Haendel's,  185;  Scarlatti's,  187; 
of  the  second  classical  period, 
188-192;  Mozart's,  188-90;  de- 
menti's, 191-4;  of  the  transition 
period,  193;  Beethoven,  193: 
Schubert  and  Weber,  194;  of  the 
Romanticists,  194-6,  Mendels- 
sohn's, 197  ;  Chopin's,  197  ; 
Schumann's,  198-9;  Liszts,  20I- 
2;  minor,  205-8. 

Thalberg,  S.,  194. 


Toccatas,  212. 

Transitions,  35. 

Trio  or  Alternative  (Form),  34. 

Tschaikowsky,  P..  229,  230. 

Two  -  finger    exercise,  Mason's, 

208. 
Unity,  32-4. 
Van  den  Eeden,  73. 
Variety,  32. 
Verdi,  231. 

Vincentino,  Nicolo,  212. 
Virginals,  4. 
V^irtuosovs.  Artist,  181. 
Vogler,  Abbe,  104,  217. 
Volkmano,  R.,  222. 
Von  Breuning  family,  74. 
Wagner,  226,  227,  235. 
Waldstein,  Count,  74. 
"Wanderer,"  by  Schubert,  114. 
Wanhal,  217. 

Weber,  Carl  Maria:  life,  102-9; 

compositions,  107-12,  122. 
Weitzman,  C.  F.,  222. 
Werkmeister,A.,  215. 
Wieck,  Fr.,  162-4,  I70-Ii  226. 
Wieck,  Clara,  162-3,  169-70,  173. 
Will,  63. 

Willaert,  A.,  211. 
Woelfl,  89-90,  218. 
Woilenhaupt,  H.  A.,  223, 
Wrist  Action,  206-7. 
Zachan,  215. 
Zambona,  72. 
Zariino,  C,  212. 


CAYLORO 


PHINTCO  IN  U.S.A. 


